Section: Social Complexity / Kinds of Written Documents
Variable: Calendar (All coded records)
Talking about Kinds of Written Documents, NO_DESCRIPTIONS_IN_CODEBOOK  
Calendar
#  Polity  Coded Value Tags Year(s) Edit Desc
1 Early Qing present Confident Expert -
e.g. almanacs allowing regulation of activities throughout the year based on the daily calendar. [1]

[1]: (Woolley 2016, p. 68)


2 Late Qing present Confident Expert -
e.g. ritual calendar [1]

[1]: (Smith 2015, 378)


3 Archaic Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


4 Initial Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


5 Early Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


6 Middle Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


7 Late Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


8 Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico absent Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


9 Epiclassic Basin of Mexico present Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


10 Toltecs present Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


11 Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico present Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


12 Aztec Empire present Confident Expert -
First evidence in Mesoamerica c. 500 BCE. Present at Teotihuacan c. 200 CE onwards. [1]

[1]: Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)


13 Hawaii I absent Confident Expert -
The pre-contact Hawaiians had no writing. [1]

[1]: (Kirch 2010, 75-76) Patrick Vinton Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.


14 Hawaii II absent Confident Expert -
Writing was introduced by Christian missionaries starting from the 1820s [1] .

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938, 102-118)


15 Hawaii III absent Confident Expert -
"The lack of a writing system is also noteworthy, although Hawai’i is not the only archaic state with this deficiency; the Inka similarly lacked written texts." [1]

[1]: (Kirch 2010, 75)


16 Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period absent Confident Expert -
Writing was introduced by Christian missionaries starting from the 1820s [1] .

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938, 102-118)


17 Cahokia - Early Woodland absent Confident Expert -
-
18 Cahokia - Middle Woodland absent Confident Expert -
-
19 Cahokia - Late Woodland I absent Confident Expert -
-
20 Cahokia - Late Woodland II absent Confident Expert -
-
21 Cahokia - Late Woodland III absent Confident Expert -
-
22 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I absent Confident Expert -
-
23 Cahokia - Sand Prairie absent Confident Expert -
-
24 Oneota absent Confident Expert -
Certainly absent.
25 Early Illinois Confederation unknown Suspected Expert -
-
26 Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling absent Confident Expert -
-
27 Cahokia - Moorehead absent Confident Expert -
-
28 Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II absent Confident Expert -
-
29 Funan I present Confident Expert -
Indian calendrical system. "With the Sanskritization of personal names came the Indian calendrical system..." [1]

[1]: (Higham 1989, p. 248)


30 Funan II present Confident Expert -
Indian calendrical system. "With the Sanskritization of personal names came the Indian calendrical system..." [1]

[1]: (Higham 1989, p. 248)


31 Chenla present Inferred Expert -
Vickery discusses the use of Sanskritic calendrical terms used for the ’5th’, the ’7th’, a ’full moon,’ and ’Wednesday’. [1]

[1]: (Vickery 1998, 248)


32 Early Angkor present Confident Expert -
’At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.’ [1] ’In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed. [2] ’Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets’ positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given ’backwards,’ with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.’ [3] Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler [4] . The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire’s inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier’s day, and revised every three years.’ [5]

[1]: (Mannikka 1996, p.3)

[2]: (Mannikka 1996, p.4)

[3]: (Mannikka 1996, p.261)

[4]: (Chandler 2008, p. 15)

[5]: (Coe 2003, p. 145)


33 Classical Angkor present Confident Expert -
’At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.’ [1] ’In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed. [2] ’Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets’ positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given ’backwards,’ with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.’ [3] Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler [4] . The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire’s inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier’s day, and revised every three years.’ [5]

[1]: (Mannikka 1996, p.3)

[2]: (Mannikka 1996, p.4)

[3]: (Mannikka 1996, p.261)

[4]: (Chandler 2008, p. 15)

[5]: (Coe 2003, p. 145)


34 Late Angkor present Confident Expert -
A calendar based on astronomical measurements exists. ’Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets’ positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given ’backwards,’ with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.’ [1] Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler [2] . The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire’s inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier’s day, and revised every three years.’ [3]

[1]: (Mannikka 1996, p.261)

[2]: (Chandler 2008, p. 15)

[3]: (Coe 2003, p. 145)


35 Khmer Kingdom present Confident Expert -
’At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.’ [1] ’In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed. [2] ’Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets’ positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given ’backwards,’ with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.’ [3] Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler [4] . The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire’s inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier’s day, and revised every three years.’ [5]

[1]: (Mannikka 1996, p.3)

[2]: (Mannikka 1996, p.4)

[3]: (Mannikka 1996, p.261)

[4]: (Chandler 2008, p. 15)

[5]: (Coe 2003, p. 145)


36 Ayutthaya present Confident Expert -
"In 1685, [King] Narai changed the official calendar from Chulakkasarat (the Lesser Era-CS) to Phuthakkasarat (the Buddhist Era-BE)" [1] .

[1]: (Ruangslip 2007, p. 146)


37 Rattanakosin present Confident Expert -
King Mongkut "ordered the use of regnal years for the calendar" [1] .

[1]: (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, p. 50)


38 Medang Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
Literate culture.
39 Mataram Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
40 Monagrillo absent Confident -
-
41 La Mula-Sarigua absent Confident -
-
42 Early Greater Coclé absent Confident -
-
43 Middle Greater Coclé absent Confident -
-
44 Late Greater Coclé absent Confident -
-
45 Chuuk - Early Truk absent Confident Expert -
SCCS variable 149 ’Writing and Records’ is coded as ‘1’ or ‘None’, not ‘Mnemonic devices’, or ‘Nonwritten records’, or ’True writing, no records’, or ‘True writing; records’.
46 Chuuk - Late Truk present Inferred Expert -
Islanders traditionally did not use a written calendar: ’The calendar of the Truk people has two annual seasons, räs, the breadfruit season, and äfän, the curcuma season, the northern trade season, which, of course, varies greatly. The names of the seasons are also used as designations for the entire year. Instead of saying, “I am 10 years old,” the Truk native says, “ e[unknown]ol ai räs” or “e[unknown]ol ai äfän,” that is, “I am 10 räs” or “I am 10 äfän old.” They also indeed have a name for year, namely, ir, the English /207/ word year. Similarly the word wik is of English origin (week) = Woche /“week” in German/.’ [1] ’The year of the Truk people is a lunar year and has 12 months ( maram). Some old pölu also say 13. But the 13th one is then only a substitute month for another one which is left out, so that in practice there are always only 12. The months are reckoned from the first quarter to the next first quarter. They regard as lying in between 30 moonlight nights ( puinin maram), the names of which are taken from the phases of the moon. The names of the months themselves are star names.’ [1] ’They are: 1. Oromai (Arcturus); 2. Täu; 3. Pumur (Scorpio); 4. Man (animal = large dog); 5. Mälap (the Great = Aquila); 6. Soda (the one lying toward sunrise = Equuleus); 7. Na (Pegasus); 8. Ku (Dolphin = Aries); 9. Un (Aldebaran); 10. Elimada; 11. Mörgör (Pleiades); 12. Elidau.’ [2] ’Another factor apparently of psychological importance in some case of isolation of Causcasians is the time dimension. For some reason, many people appear to cling with desperation to some ingeniously contrived means of estimating the time of day and the date, a last contact with reality or basis for hope which, when lost, marks their real breakdown. For the Trukese this is a matter of little or no concern. Aboriginally they were equipped to reckon the seasons, and to divide the day into morning, daytime, afternoon, evening, and night, but these were means for relating oneself to the realities of nature, not an arbitrary system for bounding one’s activities. In response to the demands of foreigners they have learned to tėll time and the date, but when not [Page 898] in a foreign context they pay little attention to either. A man who has acquired a watch and wears it as a sign of status is concerned if it does not run, but may not even bother to set it if he discovers it is an hour or two off. We may therefore conclude that losing track of the time, which so dismays Western castaways, matters little or not at all to the Trukese.’ [3] Nevertheless, we have assumed that Christian missionaries also spread the use of calendars when they taught reading and writing.

[1]: Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 227

[2]: Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 228

[3]: Gladwin, Thomas 1958. “Canoe Travel In The Truk Area: Technology And Its Psychological Correlates”, 897


47 Neolithic Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
48 Prepalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
49 New Palace Crete unknown Confident Expert -
-
50 Monopalatial Crete present Confident Expert -
The year was divided into named months (menos, μήνας in ancient Greek) [1] Two months are attested at Pylos: the pakijanijojo and the powowitojo, the latter interpreted as the sailing month. Months recorded at Knossos are the deukijojo, wodewijo, karaerijo, diwijojo, amakoto, and rapato. The data provided, however, by the preserved texts is not full enough to permit any reconstruction of the calendaric system (s).

[1]: Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. Documents in Mycenaean Greek, Cambridge, 303-12; //////.


51 Postpalatial Crete present Confident Expert -
In the Mycenaean world, the year was divided into named months (menos, μήνας in ancient Greek). [1] Two months are attested at Pylos: the pakijanijojo and the powowitojo, the latter interpreted as the sailing month. Months recorded at Knossos are the deukijojo, wodewijo, karaerijo, diwijojo, amakoto, and rapato. The data provided, however, by the preserved texts is not full enough to permit any reconstruction of the calendaric system (s).

[1]: Ventris, M. and Chadwick, J. 1973. Documents in Mycenaean Greek, Cambridge, 303-12.


52 Final Postpalatial Crete absent Confident Expert -
-
53 Archaic Crete present Confident Expert -
-
54 Classical Crete present Confident Expert -
-
55 Hellenistic Crete present Confident Expert -
Cretans named each year after the president of the board of Kosmoi (protokosmos or kosmos o epi poleos). In Hellenistic times, years were also reckoned in quadrennial periods according to the Olympiads. The year, started in the summer solstice, was divided into twelve months: Agyios (December-January), Dioskouros (January-February), Theodosios (February-March), Pontos (March-April), Rabinthios (April-May), Hyperberetos (May-June), Nekysios (June-July), Basileios (July-August), Thersmofhorion (August-September), Hermaios (September-October), Metarhios (October-November), Eiman (November-December).
56 Roman Empire - Principate present Confident Expert -
Julian calendar, in use since 46 BCE. in 8 BCE Augustus renamed Quintilis as Iulius (July) and Sextilis as Augustus (August).
57 Roman Empire - Dominate present Confident Expert -
-
58 East Roman Empire present Confident Expert -
-
59 Byzantine Empire I present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1]

[1]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)


60 The Emirate of Crete present Confident Expert -
The local population followed the Byzantine calendar which is based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. [1] The Arab inviders followed the Islamic calendar the first year of which begins in 622 CE during which the emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina occurred.

[1]: Bryer, A. 2008. "Chronology and Dating," in Jeffreys,E. Haldon,J., Cormack, R. (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, Oxford, 31-37.


61 Byzantine Empire II present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)


62 Byzantine Empire III present Confident Expert -
Preiser-Kapeller says present. [1]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)


63 Cuzco - Late Formative absent Confident Expert -
"There was no true writing system in the Andes prior to the arrival of the Spanish., notwithstanding recent interpretations of the quipu (see Quilter and Urton 2002) and the tocapu pictograms." [1]

[1]: (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 236)


64 Cuzco - Early Intermediate I absent Confident Expert -
"There was no true writing system in the Andes prior to the arrival of the Spanish, notwithstanding recent interpretations of the quipu (see Quilter and Urton 2002) and the tocapu pictograms." [1]

[1]: (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 236)


65 Cuzco - Early Intermediate II absent Confident Expert -
"There was no true writing system in the Andes prior to the arrival of the Spanish, notwithstanding recent interpretations of the quipu (see Quilter and Urton 2002) and the tocapu pictograms." [1]

[1]: (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 236)


66 Wari Empire absent Confident Expert -
"The patterns of repetition on some Wari textiles imply the same solar/ lunar calendar of twelve months, centered on the December solstice." [1] but non-written.

[1]: (Isbell and Young-Sánchez in Bergh 2012, 259)


67 Cuzco - Late Intermediate I absent Confident Expert -
Writing was not developed until the arrival of the Spanish. "There was no true writing system in the Andes prior to the arrival of the Spanish, notwithstanding recent interpretations of the quipu (see Quilter and Urton 2002) and the tocapu pictograms." [1]

[1]: (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 236)


68 Cuzco - Late Intermediate II absent Confident Expert -
"There was no true writing system in the Andes prior to the arrival of the Spanish, notwithstanding recent interpretations of the quipu (see Quilter and Urton 2002) and the tocapu pictograms." [1]

[1]: (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 236)


69 Inca Empire absent Confident Expert -
Calendar could not have been a written document. "Pachakutiq Inka Yupanki created the imperial calendar." [1] Alan Covey: The Incas maintained a lunar calendar that they corrected with solar observations. Each month had a name and many had important rituals and festivals. The calendar was not written down. [2]

[1]: (Covey 2003, 351)

[2]: (Covey 2015, personal communication)


70 Spanish Empire I present Confident Expert -
Spain adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582. [1]

[1]: (Kamen 1998, 248) Kamen, Henry. 1998. Philip of Spain. New Haven: Yale University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2SSCBKS


71 Deccan - Neolithic absent Inferred Expert -
-
72 Deccan - Iron Age unknown Suspected Expert -
-
73 Magadha - Maurya Empire present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.


74 Satavahana Empire present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.


75 Vakataka Kingdom present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.


76 Kadamba Empire present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.


77 Chalukyas of Badami unknown Suspected Expert -
likely used by government officials
78 Rashtrakuta Empire present Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the existence of annual festivals [1]

[1]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), pp. 83-85


79 Chalukyas of Kalyani unknown Suspected Expert -
e.g. by court/government
80 Hoysala Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
-
81 Kampili Kingdom unknown Suspected Expert -
-
82 Vijayanagara Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
83 Mughal Empire unknown Suspected Expert -
-
84 British Empire II present Confident Expert -
-
85 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early absent Confident Expert -
The Iroquois initially used a non-written lunar calendar: ’Finally, the moon provides a basis for “counting” time ( eyõhseHtá[unknown] tha:k ‘people will count’ [line 316 in Williams]), i.e., for dividing the year into months, a theme mentioned by all speakers except Cusick and Sky.’ [1] ’Among the Iroquois there seems to have been a general division of the year into periods corresponding more or less closely with our spring, summer, autumn, and winter, besides [Page 33] that into moons or months. Loskiel remarks of the Delawares and the Iroquois that they “divide the year into winter, spring, summer and autumn, and each quarter into months, but their calculations are very imperfect, nor can they agree when to begin the new year. Most of them begin with the spring, some with any other quarter, and many, who are acquainted with the Europeans, begin with our New Year’s day.” His interpretations of the names given to the months, however, differ from those which follow.’ [2] The lunar calendar determined the timing of festivals: ’Although there are six major festivals, a listing of the daily composition of the midwinterceremonies embraces all the external forms found in the subsequent celebrations.The two headmen of the longhouse watch the Pleiades throughout the fall and, when theyare near the zenith at dusk, call a meeting of the Faith-keepers to convene on the full moon,which is the first following the winter solstice. They meet at the longhouse in the morning(this occurred on December 31st, 1933), consult the people and set the date for the NewYear, which should be twenty days after this meeting, when the following new moon is five days old. Frequently they mistake the moon and advance or retard the date, which elicits remarks about hoeing corn in winter from their neighbors at Cattaraugus.’ [3] The written Christian calendar was only later added to the Iroquois lunar system: ’The Christian Calendar had a yearly and a weekly cycle. The yearly cycle preserved two aboriginal patterns, that of community feasting at harvest and gathering at strawberry picking time. The aboriginal survivals were modified; Protestant religious services replaced the aboriginal ritual. In all other respects the yearly calondar resenblod that of any rural Ontarie community. The weekly calondar encouraged a strong work othic; one worked for six days and rested on the seventh.’ [4] But for most of the time period in question, the agricultural calendar would have been orally transmitted and interpreted.

[1]: Foster, Michael K. 1974. “From The Earth To Beyond The Sky: An Ethnographic Approach To Four Longhouse Iroquois Speech Events”, 74

[2]: Waugh, Frederick W. 1916. “Iroquois Foods And Food Preparation”, 32

[3]: Fenton, William N. 1936. “Outline Of Seneca Ceremonies At Coldspring Longhouse”, 10

[4]: Foley, Denis 1994. “Ethnohistoric And Ethnographic Analysis Of The Iroquois From The Aboriginal Era To The Present Suburban Era”, 117


86 Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late absent Confident Expert -
The Iroquois initially used a non-written lunar calendar: ’Finally, the moon provides a basis for “counting” time ( eyõhseHtá[unknown] tha:k ‘people will count’ [line 316 in Williams]), i.e., for dividing the year into months, a theme mentioned by all speakers except Cusick and Sky.’ [1] ’Among the Iroquois there seems to have been a general division of the year into periods corresponding more or less closely with our spring, summer, autumn, and winter, besides [Page 33] that into moons or months. Loskiel remarks of the Delawares and the Iroquois that they “divide the year into winter, spring, summer and autumn, and each quarter into months, but their calculations are very imperfect, nor can they agree when to begin the new year. Most of them begin with the spring, some with any other quarter, and many, who are acquainted with the Europeans, begin with our New Year’s day.” His interpretations of the names given to the months, however, differ from those which follow.’ [2] The lunar calendar determined the timing of festivals: ’Although there are six major festivals, a listing of the daily composition of the midwinterceremonies embraces all the external forms found in the subsequent celebrations.The two headmen of the longhouse watch the Pleiades throughout the fall and, when theyare near the zenith at dusk, call a meeting of the Faith-keepers to convene on the full moon,which is the first following the winter solstice. They meet at the longhouse in the morning(this occurred on December 31st, 1933), consult the people and set the date for the NewYear, which should be twenty days after this meeting, when the following new moon is five days old. Frequently they mistake the moon and advance or retard the date, which elicits remarks about hoeing corn in winter from their neighbors at Cattaraugus.’ [3] The written Christian calendar was later added to the Iroquois lunar system: ’The Christian Calendar had a yearly and a weekly cycle. The yearly cycle preserved two aboriginal patterns, that of community feasting at harvest and gathering at strawberry picking time. The aboriginal survivals were modified; Protestant religious services replaced the aboriginal ritual. In all other respects the yearly calondar resenblod that of any rural Ontarie community. The weekly calondar encouraged a strong work othic; one worked for six days and rested on the seventh.’ [4] For most of the time period in question, the agricultural calendar would have been orally transmitted and interpreted. We are unsure about the use of written calendars on reservations.

[1]: Foster, Michael K. 1974. “From The Earth To Beyond The Sky: An Ethnographic Approach To Four Longhouse Iroquois Speech Events”, 74

[2]: Waugh, Frederick W. 1916. “Iroquois Foods And Food Preparation”, 32

[3]: Fenton, William N. 1936. “Outline Of Seneca Ceremonies At Coldspring Longhouse”, 10

[4]: Foley, Denis 1994. “Ethnohistoric And Ethnographic Analysis Of The Iroquois From The Aboriginal Era To The Present Suburban Era”, 117


87 Canaan absent Confident Expert -
-
88 Phoenician Empire present Inferred Expert -
Notably, the famous 10th Century BCE Gezer calendar is argued by some to have been Phoenician.
89 Yisrael unknown Confident Expert -
-
90 Neo-Assyrian Empire present Confident Expert -
Annual religious festivals [1]

[1]: (Radler 2014)


91 Achaemenid Empire present Confident Expert -
In approximately 539 BC, Persia’s rulers conquered Babylon, and soon afterwards - at least by the 4th century BC - adopted the Babylonian luni-solar calendar for civil purposes. [1]

[1]: Boyce, Mary. 1984. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 3: Manchester University Press.


92 Seleucids present Confident Expert -
The Babylonian calendar. [1]

[1]: Boiy, T. 2011. Local and Imperial Dates at the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period. Electrum. Studies in Ancient History. 18, pp. 9-22. p13


93 Ptolemaic Kingdom I present Confident Expert -
4 types of calendar are present. [1]

[1]: (Manning 2015, Personal Communication)


94 Yehuda present Confident Expert -
Aside from the Rabbinic calendar, whose months were determined by observation of each New Moon, several fixed calendars were in use. The so-called Qumran Calendar of 364 days is attested to in several of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the similar Enoch Calendar is described in the Book of Enoch. [1]

[1]: Cf. Pratt (2000).


95 Early A'chik absent Confident Expert -
‘The agricultural tasks which follow assignment of the plots to households are precisely defined, and are followed with considerable regularity. The Rengsanggri people have a nodding acquaintance with the European calendar and are sometimes able to arrange government business according to its terms; but in describing their own agricultural cycle they more often use the Bengali calendar, though even this is imperfectly understood. They are acquainted with the names of the twelve Bengali months, though the Garo pronunciation of them might surprise a Bengali. They know that a new moon marks the beginning of a new month, and they are usually able to assign a particular agricultural task or festival to a particular month; but they do not understand how the lunar calendar is kept in step with the solar year, and they cannot usually tell the name of the present month with confidence. Beyond any formal calendar, however, they also note natural signs: they know, for instance, that when the bright red blossoms of the mandal tree burst forth the time has come to plant rice.’ [1] There was no written calendar before colonization.

[1]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 30


96 Late A'chik present Confident Expert -
SCCS variable 149 ’Writing and Records’ lists no mnemonic devices or nonwritten records or ’True writing, no writing’. A’chik farmers were somewhat familiar with the Christian and Benghali calendars: ‘The agricultural tasks which follow assignment of the plots to households are precisely defined, and are followed with considerable regularity. The Rengsanggri people have a nodding acquaintance with the European calendar and are sometimes able to arrange government business according to its terms; but in describing their own agricultural cycle they more often use the Bengali calendar, though even this is imperfectly understood. They are acquainted with the names of the twelve Bengali months, though the Garo pronunciation of them might surprise a Bengali. They know that a new moon marks the beginning of a new month, and they are usually able to assign a particular agricultural task or festival to a particular month; but they do not understand how the lunar calendar is kept in step with the solar year, and they cannot usually tell the name of the present month with confidence. Beyond any formal calendar, however, they also note natural signs: they know, for instance, that when the bright red blossoms of the mandal tree burst forth the time has come to plant rice.’ [1]

[1]: Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 30


97 Akan - Pre-Ashanti absent Confident Expert -
’Even though the Akan share a number of cultural traits with other ethnic groups in Ghana and Africa in general, they seem to possess certain unique cultural traits and institutions not found in other ethnic groups in Ghana. [...] Besides language, Boahen lists a common 40-day calendar [....].’ [1] Prior to the Ashanti expansion and the introduction of literacy by missionaries, this would have been orally transmitted.

[1]: Yankah, Kwesi, 1989: 21; Literacy Database’


98 Ashanti Empire present Confident Expert -
’Even though the Akan share a number of cultural traits with other ethnic groups in Ghana and Africa in general, they seem to possess certain unique cultural traits and institutions not found in other ethnic groups in Ghana. [...] Besides language, Boahen lists a common 40-day calendar [....].’ [1]

[1]: Yankah, Kwesi, 1989: 21; Literacy Database’


99 Icelandic Commonwealth absent Inferred Expert 930 CE 1000 CE
It is assumed here that the Christian calender was adopted with the religion: ’By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.’ [1] Icelandic historiography indicates a clear sense of past events and chronology: ’One of the remarkable legacies of early Iceland is its wealth of literary production. Icelandic literary production encompassed continental chivalrous, hagiographic, and historical traditions, in addition to the autochthonous development of the saga. Among other topics, Icelandic sagas depict events from the early years of Icelandic society, the colonization of Greenland and the discovery of North America, and the civil wars that characterized the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Iceland. The medieval manuscripts also preserve an artistic tradition in illumination. The literary levels achieved in Iceland, to some degree, developed from strong oral traditions of poetry and narrative. Much of the material culture of early Iceland has not been preserved but a strong tradition in artistic woodcarving is evident.’ [2] We are unsure whether there were written calendars before the introduction of Christianity.

[1]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088

[2]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders


100 Icelandic Commonwealth present Confident Expert 1001 CE 1262 CE
It is assumed here that the Christian calender was adopted with the religion: ’By the end of the 10th century, the Norwegians were forced by their king, Olaf I Tryggvason, to accept Christianity. The king also sent missionaries to Iceland who, according to 12th-century sources, were highly successful in converting the Icelanders. In 999 or 1000 the Althing made a peaceful decision that all Icelanders should become Christians. In spite of this decision, the godar retained their political role, and many of them probably built their own churches. Some were ordained, and as a group they seem to have closely controlled the organization of the new religion. Two bishoprics were established, one at Skálholt in 1056 and the other at Hólar in 1106. Literate Christian culture also transformed lay life. Codification of the law was begun in 1117-18. Later the Icelanders began to write sagas, which were to reach their pinnacle of literary achievement in the next century.’ [1] Icelandic historiography indicates a clear sense of past events and chronology: ’One of the remarkable legacies of early Iceland is its wealth of literary production. Icelandic literary production encompassed continental chivalrous, hagiographic, and historical traditions, in addition to the autochthonous development of the saga. Among other topics, Icelandic sagas depict events from the early years of Icelandic society, the colonization of Greenland and the discovery of North America, and the civil wars that characterized the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Iceland. The medieval manuscripts also preserve an artistic tradition in illumination. The literary levels achieved in Iceland, to some degree, developed from strong oral traditions of poetry and narrative. Much of the material culture of early Iceland has not been preserved but a strong tradition in artistic woodcarving is evident.’ [2] We are unsure whether there were written calendars before the introduction of Christianity.

[1]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088

[2]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders


101 Kingdom of Norway II present Confident Expert -
Given the institutionalization of Church authority and ecclesiastical learning, we have assumed written calendars present.
102 Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [1]

[1]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.


103 Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [1]

[1]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.


104 Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic absent Confident Expert -
Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [1] While seals have been found in Mehrgarh III layers, these show no evidence of script or writing. [2]

[1]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.

[2]: , C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.


105 Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [1]

[1]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.


106 Kachi Plain - Urban Period I unknown Suspected Expert -
Only eight texts longer than fifteen signs have been found. [1]

[1]: Burjor Avari. India: The Ancient Past. A history of the Indian sub-continent from c.7000 BC to AD 1200. Oxon, 2007, p.51


107 Kachi Plain - Urban Period II unknown Suspected Expert -
Only eight texts longer than fifteen signs have been found. [1]

[1]: Burjor Avari. India: The Ancient Past. A history of the Indian sub-continent from c.7000 BC to AD 1200. Oxon, 2007, p.51


108 Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period absent Confident Expert -
"The Indus civilization flourished for around five hundred to seven hundred years, and in the early second millennium it disintegrated. This collapse was marked by the disappearance of the features that had distinguished the Indus civilization from its predecessors: writing, city dwelling, some kind of central control, international trade, occupational specialization, and widely distributed standardized artifacts. [...] Writing was no longer used, though occasionally signs were scratched as graffiti on pottery." [1]

[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 91-92) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Civilization. Oxford; Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio.


109 Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period absent Confident Expert -
-
110 Parthian Empire I present Confident Expert -
Evidence from Seleucia shows that the Parthians used the Babylonian system. [1] "In the indigenous Parthian lands the Zoroastrian calendar was also used beside the Seleucid era." [2]

[1]: G. R. F. Assar, ‘Parthian Calendars at Babylon and Seleucia on the Tigris’, Iran, 41 (2003), 171-91.

[2]: (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 144) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.


111 Kushan Empire present Confident Expert -
-
112 Sasanid Empire I unknown Suspected Expert -
-
113 Hephthalites present Confident Expert -
absent: 408-487 CE; present: 488-670 CE [1] Khwarazm region: "The Khwarazmian solar calendar, related to the Zoroastrian system, is known to us thanks to Biruni, who argued that it was in advance of most other ancient systems for measuring time." [2]

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia p. 143

[2]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


114 Sasanid Empire II present Inferred Expert -
Zoroastrian calendar.
115 Umayyad Caliphate present Confident Expert -
Arabic folk astronomy had been recorded by the third and fourth centuries. [1]

[1]: Young, Latham and Serjeant, eds. p.275


116 Abbasid Caliphate I present Confident Expert -
Islamic prayer times are astronomically defined, as is determining the direction of Mecca. As such, astrological timekeeping, the body of literature called ’ilm-al-miquat’ replaced folk astronomy with mathematical precision. [1]

[1]: Young, M. J. L., John Derek Latham, and Robert Bertram Serjeant, eds. Religion, learning and science in the’abbasid period pp. 283-4


117 Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period present Confident Expert -
-
118 Ghur Principality present Confident Expert -
-
119 Delhi Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
120 Sind - Samma Dynasty unknown Suspected Expert -
-
121 Durrani Empire present Confident Expert -
The Lunar Arabic Calendar was used, although it had Pashtun replacements of some terminology. [1]

[1]: K. Ferdinand, Preliminary Notes on Hazāra Culture, Hist. Filos. Medd. Dan. Vid. Selsk. 37, no. 5, Copenhagen, 1959, esp. Appendix I, pp. 40-46.


122 Japan - Incipient Jomon absent Confident Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


123 Japan - Initial Jomon absent Confident Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


124 Japan - Early Jomon absent Confident Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


125 Japan - Middle Jomon absent Confident Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


126 Japan - Late Jomon absent Inferred Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


127 Japan - Final Jomon absent Confident Expert -
“To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


128 Kansai - Yayoi Period absent Confident Expert -
"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche." [1]

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


129 Kansai - Kofun Period absent Inferred Expert 250 CE 399 CE
"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche." [1] e.g. used by government

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


130 Kansai - Kofun Period present Confident Expert 450 CE 537 CE
"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche." [1] e.g. used by government

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


131 Kansai - Kofun Period present Confident Uncertain Expert 399 CE 449 CE
"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche." [1] e.g. used by government

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


132 Kansai - Kofun Period absent Confident Uncertain Expert 399 CE 449 CE
"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche." [1] e.g. used by government

[1]: (Frellesvig 2010, 11)


133 Asuka unknown Suspected Expert -
e.g. used by government
134 Heian present Confident Expert -
’To judge by scanty evidence, the embassies brought for trade chiefly furs (tiger, leopard, bear), honey, ginseng, and other domestic goods and products; but they also may have regularly supplied items from China, like the copy of the Chinese Hsuan-ming calendar that was brought by an embassy in 859 and remained the official calendar of Japan, with growing inaccuracy, from 862 to 1684.’ [1]

[1]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.91.


135 Kamakura Shogunate present Confident Expert -
’In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name.’ [1]

[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.


136 Ashikaga Shogunate present Confident Expert -
‘In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name. However, in the early modern period, the nengo did not simply represent the duration of a governmental regime. New era names might be declared when auspicious events occurred or at certain points in the traditional 60- year (sexagenary) calendar cycle... Despite the official use of the lunar calendar, the solar calendar was also employed and was very important for farmers.’ [1]

[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.


137 Warring States Japan present Confident Expert -
-
138 Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama present Confident Expert -
‘In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name. However, in the early modern period, the nengo did not simply represent the duration of a governmental regime. New era names might be declared when auspicious events occurred or at certain points in the traditional 60- year (sexagenary) calendar cycle.’ [1]

[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.


139 Tokugawa Shogunate present Confident Expert -
‘In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name. However, in the early modern period, the nengo did not simply represent the duration of a governmental regime. New era names might be declared when auspicious events occurred or at certain points in the traditional 60- year (sexagenary) calendar cycle... Despite the official use of the lunar calendar, the solar calendar was also employed and was very important for farmers.’ [1] ‘As the field of Western astronomy developed in Japan, the government appointed official astronomers (temmonkata) to serve and advise the shogunate. The first, Shibukawa Shunkai (or Harumi; 1639-1715), was a student of the theories of Copernicus. He utilized this knowledge to design a new calendar, the Jokyo calendar, based on a late 13thcentury Chinese calendar that was adopted as the official Japanese calendar in 1684.’ [2]

[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.

[2]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.238.


140 Iban - Pre-Brooke absent Confident Expert -
Written calendars were only introduced later on: ’The Iban still attach great importance to their stellar lore. Tungku, a tuai rumah of the Mujong headwaters, put it in these words:“If there were no stars we Iban would be lost, not knowing when to plant; we live by the stars.”(“ Enti nadai bintang tesat ati kami Iban, enda nemu maia nugal; kami idup ari bintang. ”) It must not be thought however that there is any dogma that rituals, etc. should be held on the exact dates given. The Iban are a pre-literate people without a calendar, and the movements of the Pleiades, Orion and Sirius are taken as no more than general indications of the time when the major operations of felling and planting should be embarked upon.’ [1] ’Since most people now have western calendars, they know during which month the sowing, weeding or harvesting is to be done. Their “new year” begins after the harvest is completed, which may be some time in May or June. However, June 1st is “Dayak Day,” proclaimed by the government as the official Dayak New Year’s Day.’ [2]

[1]: Freeman, Derek 1955. “Iban Agriculture: A Report On The Shifting Cultivation Of Hill Rice By The Iban Of Sarawak”, 40

[2]: Komanyi, Margit Ilona 1973. “Real And Ideal Participation In Decision-Making Of Iban Women: A Study Of A Longhouse Community In Sarawak, East Malaysia”, 15


141 Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial absent Confident Expert 1841 CE 1921 CE
In the 1950s, Freeman claimed no written calendars for the ’pre-literate’ Iban: ’The Iban still attach great importance to their stellar lore. Tungku, a tuai rumah of the Mujong headwaters, put it in these words:“If there were no stars we Iban would be lost, not knowing when to plant; we live by the stars.”(“ Enti nadai bintang tesat ati kami Iban, enda nemu maia nugal; kami idup ari bintang. ”) It must not be thought however that there is any dogma that rituals, etc. should be held on the exact dates given. The Iban are a pre-literate people without a calendar, and the movements of the Pleiades, Orion and Sirius are taken as no more than general indications of the time when the major operations of felling and planting should be embarked upon.’ [1] Komanyi claims written calendars following the European pattern and literacy in the 1970s: ’Since most people now have western calendars, they know during which month the sowing, weeding or harvesting is to be done. Their “new year” begins after the harvest is completed, which may be some time in May or June. However, June 1st is “Dayak Day,” proclaimed by the government as the official Dayak New Year’s Day.’ [2] On the other hand, mission schools were established in the 1920s already. Regional variation may explain the difference. We have chosen to go with the 1921 figure as it is congruent with the establishment of schooling in the area. This is open to re-evaluation, and expert feedback is absolutely essential on the matter.

[1]: Freeman, Derek 1955. “Iban Agriculture: A Report On The Shifting Cultivation Of Hill Rice By The Iban Of Sarawak”, 40

[2]: Komanyi, Margit Ilona 1973. “Real And Ideal Participation In Decision-Making Of Iban Women: A Study Of A Longhouse Community In Sarawak, East Malaysia”, 15


142 Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial present Confident Expert 1922 CE 1987 CE
In the 1950s, Freeman claimed no written calendars for the ’pre-literate’ Iban: ’The Iban still attach great importance to their stellar lore. Tungku, a tuai rumah of the Mujong headwaters, put it in these words:“If there were no stars we Iban would be lost, not knowing when to plant; we live by the stars.”(“ Enti nadai bintang tesat ati kami Iban, enda nemu maia nugal; kami idup ari bintang. ”) It must not be thought however that there is any dogma that rituals, etc. should be held on the exact dates given. The Iban are a pre-literate people without a calendar, and the movements of the Pleiades, Orion and Sirius are taken as no more than general indications of the time when the major operations of felling and planting should be embarked upon.’ [1] Komanyi claims written calendars following the European pattern and literacy in the 1970s: ’Since most people now have western calendars, they know during which month the sowing, weeding or harvesting is to be done. Their “new year” begins after the harvest is completed, which may be some time in May or June. However, June 1st is “Dayak Day,” proclaimed by the government as the official Dayak New Year’s Day.’ [2] On the other hand, mission schools were established in the 1920s already. Regional variation may explain the difference. We have chosen to go with the 1921 figure as it is congruent with the establishment of schooling in the area. This is open to re-evaluation, and expert feedback is absolutely essential on the matter.

[1]: Freeman, Derek 1955. “Iban Agriculture: A Report On The Shifting Cultivation Of Hill Rice By The Iban Of Sarawak”, 40

[2]: Komanyi, Margit Ilona 1973. “Real And Ideal Participation In Decision-Making Of Iban Women: A Study Of A Longhouse Community In Sarawak, East Malaysia”, 15


143 Konya Plain - Early Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
-
144 Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
-
145 Konya Plain - Late Neolithic absent Confident Expert -
-
146 Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic absent Inferred Expert -
-
147 Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic absent Inferred Expert -
-
148 Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
-
149 Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia present Confident Expert -
The calendar used was related to harvesting during summer (cereals) and autumn (grape). [1]

[1]: Bachluber Ch. 2012. "Bronze Age Cities On Plain and the Plains and the Highlands". pg. 577


150 Hatti - Old Kingdom present Confident Expert -
The cultic calendar. [1]

[1]: Collins B.J.(2007) The Hittites and Their World, (Society of Biblical literature archaeology and Biblical studies; no. 7), Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, pp. 162


151 Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II present Confident Expert -
The cultic calendar. [1]

[1]: Collins B.J.(2007) The Hittites and Their World, (Society of Biblical literature archaeology and Biblical studies; no. 7), Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, pp. 162


152 Hatti - New Kingdom present Confident Expert -
The cultic calendar. [1] "During the period of the primacy of Hattusa, the Hittites are best known from their royal library and archives excavated at that site, written in the Cuneiform script on clay tablets, a script and medium borrowed from Mesopotamia. These archives, comprising many thousands of tablets, contain every kind of royal chancellery document: annals; edicts, treaties and laws; verdicts, protocols and administrative texts; letters; and a large number of religious texts, rituals and festivals." [2]

[1]: Collins B.J.(2007) The Hittites and Their World, (Society of Biblical literature archaeology and Biblical studies; no. 7), Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, pp. 162

[2]: (Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.


153 Phrygian Kingdom present Inferred Expert -
literacy + government
154 Kingdom of Lydia present Inferred Expert -
inferred continuity with earlier periods in the region
155 Lysimachus Kingdom present Inferred Expert -
government + literacy
156 Late Cappadocia present Inferred Expert -
-
157 Rum Sultanate present Inferred Expert -
Islamic calendar
158 Ilkhanate present Confident Expert -
e.g. Abu Rayḥān Biruni’s Ketāb al-āṯār al-bāqia ʿan al-qorun al-ḵālia ( “The Chronology of Ancient Nations”) contains calendars. [1]

[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration


159 Ottoman Emirate present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.


160 Ottoman Empire I present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar
161 Ottoman Empire II present Confident Expert -
-
162 Ottoman Empire III present Inferred Expert -
inferred continuity with earlier phases of this polity
163 Latium - Copper Age absent Confident Expert -
First Roman calendar thought to be the 8th century BCE "Calendar of Romulus."
164 Latium - Bronze Age absent Confident Expert -
First Roman calendar thought to be the 8th century BCE "Calendar of Romulus."
165 Latium - Iron Age absent Confident Uncertain Expert -
First Roman calendar thought to be the 8th century BCE "Calendar of Romulus." Numa Pompilius reformed this calendar in 713 BCE>
166 Latium - Iron Age present Confident Uncertain Expert -
First Roman calendar thought to be the 8th century BCE "Calendar of Romulus." Numa Pompilius reformed this calendar in 713 BCE>
167 Roman Kingdom present Confident Expert -
First Roman calendar thought to be the 8th century BCE "Calendar of Romulus." Numa Pompilius reformed this calendar in 713 BCE>
168 Early Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
Calendar of Numa in use since 713 BCE. Pontifex Maximus determined when an intercalary month was to be inserted.
169 Middle Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
Existing calendar of Numa, and the reform of Lex Acilia in 191 BCE.
170 Late Roman Republic present Confident Expert -
Julian calendar, in use since 46 BCE.
171 Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity present Confident Expert -
-
172 Ostrogothic Kingdom present Confident Expert -
-
173 Exarchate of Ravenna present Confident Expert -
-
174 Republic of St Peter I present Confident Expert -
-
175 Rome - Republic of St Peter II present Confident Expert -
E.g. Christian calendar.
176 Papal States - High Medieval Period present Confident Expert -
E.g. Christian calendar.
177 Papal States - Renaissance Period present Confident Expert -
E.g. Christian calendar.
178 Papal States - Early Modern Period I present Confident Expert -
E.g. Christian calendar.
179 Papal States - Early Modern Period II present Confident Expert -
The calendar followed the Gregorian Reform of the 16th century.
180 Sakha - Early absent Confident Expert -
The Sakha initially used a nonwritten lunar calender: ’The ancient Yakut divided the year into lunar months ( yi-syl ). According to Jonov, one year ( tögürüksyl ) in our calendar was regarded as two years: spring and summer were counted as one year and fall and winter as another. Consequently, the time count in old Yakut traditions is much confused. For example, after two years in our count had passed, the Yakut may have said that four years had elapsed. The month was divided into two sections. The first half, until full moon, was called “the new” ( sañata ); the second half, following the full moon, “the old” ( ärgätä ). The days in the first half of the month are enumerated regularly from one to fifteen; in the second half, they are counted in reverse order, from fifteen to one. Thus, there are two fifteenth days in the month, one at the end of the first half and another at the beginning of the second half. Some moments in the phases of the moon are poetically defined; for instance, of the first day of the first half of the month, the Yakut say: kys jaxtar kylamanbin kurduk kylbayan taxs[unknown]yta, it glistened like the eyelash of a young girl; of the twenty-eighth day (the Yakut second day of the second half of the month) they say: xotun jaxtar ytarhatyn iämähin saha ärgi[unknown]ciyä baranyta, it ends like the size of a woman’s earring.’ [1]

[1]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 100


181 Sakha - Late absent Confident Expert -
The Sakha initially used a nonwritten lunar calender: ’The ancient Yakut divided the year into lunar months ( yi-syl ). According to Jonov, one year ( tögürüksyl ) in our calendar was regarded as two years: spring and summer were counted as one year and fall and winter as another. Consequently, the time count in old Yakut traditions is much confused. For example, after two years in our count had passed, the Yakut may have said that four years had elapsed. The month was divided into two sections. The first half, until full moon, was called “the new” ( sañata ); the second half, following the full moon, “the old” ( ärgätä ). The days in the first half of the month are enumerated regularly from one to fifteen; in the second half, they are counted in reverse order, from fifteen to one. Thus, there are two fifteenth days in the month, one at the end of the first half and another at the beginning of the second half. Some moments in the phases of the moon are poetically defined; for instance, of the first day of the first half of the month, the Yakut say: kys jaxtar kylamanbin kurduk kylbayan taxs[unknown]yta, it glistened like the eyelash of a young girl; of the twenty-eighth day (the Yakut second day of the second half of the month) they say: xotun jaxtar ytarhatyn iämähin saha ärgi[unknown]ciyä baranyta, it ends like the size of a woman’s earring.’ [1] The use of calenders by Christian Sakha resembles mnemonic devices more closely than written documents: ’After becoming Christians the Yakut no longer followed this method of reckoning time, but oriented themselves by the Christian holidays, for instance: kirisiäniye (Russian, krestcheniye ), baptism, January sixth; Kiristiäp (Russian, Kristov ). Easter: Orosuospa (Russian Rozhdestvo ), Christmas; bul[unknown]astar (Russian, Vlasii ), or ynax tañarata (cow’s holiday), February eleventh. Russians regard Saint Vlasii as the protector of domestic cattle and among the Yakut this saint replaced the female deity, Ayisit, of their old mythology. Among the Yakut are experienced individuals who know the number of days between holidays since it is easier to deal with immovable feasts. For movable festivals, they must often consult their priest. On the wall of every Yakut dwelling is a calendar, usually consisting of a small board with holes corresponding to the number of days in the year. The immovable feasts are marked by crosses over the holes. A wooden peg is placed in the hole to indicate the current date, thus showing whether it is an ordinary day or a holiday. Fig. 1 shows a circular calendar; the inner circle has seven perforations, corresponding to the seven days of the week. A peg is shown in the hole for Sunday, over which there is a cross. The outer ring has thirty holes. When the month has thirty-one days, the peg is kept in the last hole for two days. If the month has twenty-nine or twenty-eight days, the peg must be transferred to the first day of the next month. The calendar is called kün ahar, it counts the days, or sibaska (Russian, svyatzy, calendar of saints), or nädiälä asarar mas, board which shows the week.’ [2] ’The Yakut began to count the month by weeks only after Russianization. Thus, for week, they use the Russian word nädiälä ( nedielya ). The days of the week are also known by Russian names’ [3]

[1]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 100

[2]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 101

[3]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut”, 102


182 Shuar - Colonial absent Confident Expert -
-
183 Shuar - Ecuadorian absent Confident Expert -
-
184 Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period present Confident Expert -
"The existence of a festival calendar recorded on papyrus for the reign of Amenhotep I (Papyrus Ebers verso), raises the possibility that the king wished to rework earlier calendars. [1]

[1]: (Bryan 2000, 216)


185 Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period present Confident Expert -
-
186 Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period present Confident Expert -
"regular Festival of the Divine Audience, held at Karnak." [1]

[1]: (Taylor 2000, 327)


187 Egypt - Saite Period present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: (Agut-Labordere 2013)


188 Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period present Confident Expert -
-
189 Numidia present Inferred -
-
190 Ptolemaic Kingdom II present Confident Expert -
4 types of calendar are present. [1]

[1]: (Manning 2015, Personal Communication)


191 Axum I present Inferred Expert -
"Aksumite rulers who often spoke and read in Greek, put great store in written documents and in libraries to keep them". [1] "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, around 50 CE, "describes the ruler of the region, King Zoscales, as ’well versed in Hellenic sciences’. This would naturally require fluency in Greek, the lingua-franca of the ancient economy." [2] No data on written documents but it is likely that they existed, especially in Greek along the parts of the coast engaged in trade with the Greek-speaking world, if not also further inland at the capital Aksum in Ge’ez - or its precursor language - with documents relating to the local religion and the state.

[1]: (Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.

[2]: (Glazier and Peacock 2016) Darren Glazier. David Peacock. Historical background and previous investigations. David Peacock. Lucy Blue. eds. 2016. The Ancient Red Sea Port of Adulis, Eritrea: Results of the Eritro-British Expedition, 2004-5. Oxbow Books. Oxford.


192 Mauretania present Inferred -
-
193 Axum II present Inferred -
-
194 Makuria Kingdom I present Inferred -
-
195 Axum III present Inferred -
-
196 Makuria Kingdom II present Confident -
-
197 Middle Wagadu Empire absent Confident Expert -
Koran. Classic Arabic of Koran."In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne’s king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan." [1] "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [2] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [3] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [4]

[1]: (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)

[2]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.

[4]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.


198 Tahert present Inferred -
-
199 Idrisids present Confident -
-
200 Makuria Kingdom III present Confident -
-
201 Fatimid Caliphate present Confident Expert -
-
202 Zirids present Inferred -
-
203 Almoravids present Confident -
-
204 Later Wagadu Empire present Confident Expert -
Islamic calender.
205 Banu Ghaniya present Inferred -
-
206 Zagwe present Inferred -
-
207 Mali Empire present Confident Expert -
Islamic calender.
208 Tlemcen present Inferred -
-
209 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I present Confident Expert -
-
210 Malacca Sultanate present Inferred -
-
211 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II present Confident Expert -
-
212 Songhai Empire present Confident -
-
213 Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III present Confident Expert -
-
214 Wattasid present Confident -
-
215 Kingdom of Congo present Inferred -
-
216 Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty present Confident Expert -
Islamic calender.
217 Late Shang present Inferred Expert -
Accurate calendar. [1] 10-day week. [2] "“The day xin-hai” refers to the sixty day calendar cycle of the Shang (the same system which today gives us the Year of the Dragon, Horse..." [3] This would likely have existed in some form of document.

[1]: (Cotterell 1995, 15)

[2]: (Hook 1991, 143)

[3]: (Eno 2008) Eno, Robert. Spring 2008. EALC E232. Indiana University"


218 Western Zhou present Inferred Expert -
Ritual calendar. Reference to a "ritual cycle". [1]

[1]: (Shaughnessy 1999, 343) Shaughnessy "Western Zhou History" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.


219 Jin present Inferred Expert -
Inferred from the fact that contemporary polities wrote on perishable materials such as silk [1] , though this does mean that texts are less likely to be preserved, and that they had ritual calendars [2] .

[1]: (Cook and Major 1999, viii) Cook, Constance A. Major, John S. eds. 1999. Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China. University of Hawai’i Press. Honolulu.

[2]: (Shaughnessy 1999, 343) Shaughnessy "Western Zhou History" in Loewe, Michael. Shaughnessy, Edward L. 2009. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.


220 Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period present Inferred -
-
221 Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period present Inferred -
-
222 Qin Empire present Confident -
-
223 Western Han Empire present Confident Expert -
Carried Qin calendar. In 104 BCE emperor Wudi declared a "Grand Beginning" for a new phase in the Five Phase cycle. [1]

[1]: (Lewis 2009, 65)


224 Eastern Han Empire present Confident Expert -
There was a director of astrology under the superintendent of ceremonial who drew up the annual calendar. [1]

[1]: (Bielenstein 1986, 494)


225 Western Jin present Inferred Expert -
"The administrative structure inherited Qin and Han reach down to the local level, the county (xian) ... it relied heavily on written records and documents" [1]

[1]: (Graff 2002, 20-21)


226 Later Yan Kingdom present Inferred -
-
227 Later Qin Kingdom present Inferred -
-
228 Northern Wei present Confident Expert -
Since ancient times the Chinese used astronomical calculations to predict equinoxes and seasons. Sixty-day divinatory calendar from Shang era "that is still in widespread use." Babylonians may have been "the original inspiration for the Chinese soli-lunar calendar." [1]

[1]: (??? in Selin ed. 2008, 974-975)


229 Southern Qi State present Inferred -
-
230 Sui Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
-
231 Tang Dynasty I present Confident Expert -
e.g. Bureaucratic use.
232 Nara Kingdom present Confident Expert -
The Chinese calender was known and studied in Japan from the 6th century ’Written records were now used to carry out government functions; Buddhism was enthusiastically embraced; and Chinese technology stimulated such diverse fields as calendar making...Missions from Japan to China no longer sought only luxury goods, or even Chinese recognition of a Japanese ruler’s authority, but sophisticated forms of learning as well.’ [1] but does not appear to have been officially adopted until the Chinese Hsuan-ming calendar that was brought by an embassy in 859 and remained the official calendar of Japan, with growing inaccuracy, from 862 to 1684.’ [2]

[1]: Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.316

[2]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.91.


233 Tang Dynasty II present Inferred Expert -
e.g. Used by bureaucracy.
234 Jin Dynasty present Confident Expert -
e.g. 《紀元曆》, 《重修大明曆》
235 Mongol Empire present Confident Expert -
Chinese astronomers "used Middle Eastern astronomical tables to revise Chinese calendars and produce a new calendar for the Mongol rulership." [1]

[1]: Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 155.


236 Great Yuan present Confident Expert -
-
237 Great Ming present Confident Expert -
e.g. The Datong calendar. According to the Mingshi, the official history of the Ming dynasty, the Datong calendar of China was a revised version of the Shoushi calendar, and was given to the Tran dynasty in the second year of the establishment of the Ming dynasty. [1]

[1]: (Selin, 2008, p.358)


238 Third Scythian Kingdom present Inferred -
-
239 Xiongnu Imperial Confederation unknown Suspected Expert -
-
240 Kangju present Inferred -
-
241 Late Xiongnu unknown Suspected Expert -
-
242 Tuyuhun present Inferred -
-
243 Rouran Khaganate absent Inferred Expert 300 CE 499 CE
c500 CE and after: "It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished." [1]

[1]: (Kyzlasov 1996, 317)


244 Rouran Khaganate present Inferred Expert 500 CE 555 CE
c500 CE and after: "It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished." [1]

[1]: (Kyzlasov 1996, 317)


245 Yueban unknown Suspected -
-
246 Kidarite Kingdom present Inferred Expert -
"the former nomadic invaders came into possession of vast territories inhabited by settled agricultural peoples with a culture and traditions dating back many centuries, just as had been the case with the Tokharians ... who created the Kushan Empire. It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites." [1]

[1]: (Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf


247 Western Turk Khaganate present Confident Expert -
Khwarazm region: "The Khwarazmian solar calendar, related to the Zoroastrian system, is known to us thanks to Biruni, who argued that it was in advance of most other ancient systems for measuring time." [1]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


248 Eastern Turk Khaganate present Inferred Expert -
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.


249 Avar Khaganate unknown Suspected -
-
250 Uigur Khaganate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
251 Samanid Empire present Confident Expert -
"what do the highly sophisticated calendar systems that were in use in Khwarazm, Bactria, Parthia, Tokharistan, and Sogdiana tell us about the state of Central Asian science in the pre-Islamic centuries? It is surely worth noting that Biruni’s research on calendar systems, which he undertook in the early years of the eleventh century, took as its point of departure the Khwarazian calendar." [1]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


252 Khitan I present Confident Expert -
"The relations between the Khitan and the southern states of Wu-Yiieh and Southern T’ang were at their height in the late 930s and 940s; for a while Wu-Yiieh even used the Khitan calendar." [1]

[1]: (Twitchett, D.C. and K. Tietze. 1994. The Liao. In Franke, H. and D.C. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368 pp. 43-153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 72)


253 Kara-Khanids present Confident Expert -
"what do the highly sophisticated calendar systems that were in use in Khwarazm, Bactria, Parthia, Tokharistan, and Sogdiana tell us about the state of Central Asian science in the pre-Islamic centuries? It is surely worth noting that Biruni’s research on calendar systems, which he undertook in the early years of the eleventh century, took as its point of departure the Khwarazian calendar." [1]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


254 Kingdom of Georgia II present Inferred -
-
255 Xixia present Inferred -
-
256 Chagatai Khanate present Inferred Expert -
Islamic calendar.
257 Kazan Khanate present Confident -
-
258 Crimean Khanate present Inferred -
-
259 Tudor and Early Stuart England present Confident -
“Throughout the early modern period the English were still using the Julian calendar, which was 10–11 days behind the more accurate Gregorian calendar in use on the continent from 1582. The British would not adopt the Gregorian calendar until the middle of the eighteenth century. Further, the year began on March 25. We give dates according to the Julian calendar, but assume the year to begin on January 1.” [1]

[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: xvi) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U


260 Early Merovingian unknown Suspected Expert -
-
261 Middle Merovingian unknown Suspected Expert -
no clear evidence found
262 Bulgaria - Early present Confident -
-
263 Carolingian Empire I present Inferred Expert -
-
264 Carolingian Empire II unknown Suspected Expert -
-
265 Bulgaria - Middle present Confident -
-
266 Novgorod Land present Confident -
-
267 Kievan Rus present Inferred -
-
268 Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties present Confident -
-
269 French Kingdom - Early Valois present Confident Expert -
-
270 Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty present Confident -
-
271 Kassite Babylonia present Inferred Expert -
"The Babylonians used a calendar based on cycles of both the moon and the sun. Time was divided into solar days, lunar months, and luni-solar years. Days ran from sunset to sunset and were divided into four parts or into twelve “double-hours.” Astronomical texts such as Enuma Anu Enlil provided information on how to calculate the length of daylight at different times in the year." [1]

[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 268) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.


272 Neo-Babylonian Empire present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Huehnergard, J. and Woods, C. 2008. Akkadian and Eblaite in Woodard, R.D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.84


273 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom present Inferred Expert -
"The ’archival library’ in the palace of Ai Khanoum" [1] would have contained all sorts of literature.

[1]: (Staikos 2004) Staikos, K. 2004. The History of the Library in Western Civilization: From Minos to Cleopatra. Hes & de Graaf Publishers.


274 Himyar I present Confident Expert -
"By 229 CE, Himyar had enough control of southern Arabia that their calendar system began to be employed throughout the region (heralding the arrival of a unified state in Arabia), while the rest of the peninsula retained its tribal character." [1] In the late third century "The Himyarite era, an absolute system of dating, now became commonly used throughout south Arabia." [2]

[1]: (Maroney 2010, 91-92) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.

[2]: (Hoyland 2001, 47) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.


275 Himyar II present Confident Expert -
"By 229 CE, Himyar had enough control of southern Arabia that their calendar system began to be employed throughout the region (heralding the arrival of a unified state in Arabia), while the rest of the peninsula retained its tribal character." [1] In the late third century "The Himyarite era, an absolute system of dating, now became commonly used throughout south Arabia." [2]

[1]: (Maroney 2010, 91-92) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.

[2]: (Hoyland 2001, 47) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.


276 Lakhmid Kigdom present Inferred -
-
277 Yemen Ziyad Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
Islamic calendar. The Ziyad state in the Tihama was a "stronghold of Sunnism". [1]

[1]: (Stookey 1978, 57) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.


278 Saffarid Caliphate unknown Suspected -
-
279 Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
280 Buyid Confederation present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
281 Ghaznavid Empire present Confident -
-
282 Seljuk Sultanate present Confident Expert -
"Biruni’s research on calendar systems, which he undertook in the early years of the eleventh century, took as its point of departure the Khwarazian calendar." [1] e.g. the solar calendar introduced by Sultan Malik Shah. [2]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

[2]: E.S. Kennedy, ‘The Exact Sceinces in Iran under the Saljuqs and Mongols’, in J.A. Boyle (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol 5, The Saljuq and Mongol Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), p.670.


283 Yemen - Era of Warlords present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
284 Ayyubid Sultanate present Confident Expert -
-
285 Rasulid Dynasty present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
286 Timurid Empire present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
287 Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty present Confident Expert -
This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as ’Sultan ’Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier’ [1]

[1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/


288 Safavid Empire present Confident Expert -
e.g. the sonar and lunar calendars [1]

[1]: Kathryn Babayan, Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran (Cambridge, Mass: Distributed for the Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University by Harvard University Press, 2002), pp.73 -75.


289 Viet Baiyu Kingdom present Inferred -
-
290 Bagan present Inferred -
-
291 Sukhotai present Inferred -
-
292 Malacca Sultanate present Confident -
-
293 Mahajanapada era absent Confident Expert -
The Vedic Calendar existed at the time, but was not written down. [1]

[1]: A. Berriedale Keith, The Vedic Calendar, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Jul., 1914), pp. 627-640.


294 Magadha - Sunga Empire present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.


295 Gupta Empire present Inferred Expert -
"The length of the solar year was calculated with a precision which even the Greeks had not yet achieved". [1]

[1]: (Keay 2010, 153) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X.


296 Magadha present Inferred Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2] Moreover, in the preceding Gupta period, "The length of the solar year was calculated with a precision which even the Greeks had not yet achieved". [3]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.

[3]: (Keay 2010, 153) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X.


297 Chaulukya Dynasty present Confident -
-
298 Gahadavala Dynasty present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2] Moreover, in the preceding Gupta period, "The length of the solar year was calculated with a precision which even the Greeks had not yet achieved". [3]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.

[3]: (Keay 2010, 153) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X.


299 Kingdom of Ayodhya present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.


300 Kannauj - Varman Dynasty present Confident Expert -
Court astrologers present. [1] Also, Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [2] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [3] Moreover, in the preceding Gupta period, "The length of the solar year was calculated with a precision which even the Greeks had not yet achieved". [4]

[1]: (Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.

[2]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[3]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.

[4]: (Keay 2010, 153) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X.


301 Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty present Confident Expert -
Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains a chapter title "Measurement of Space and Time." [1] The Arthaśāstra "probably arose in the first half of the first millennium AD" but probably largely "derive[s] from older handbooks". [2] Moreover, in the preceding Gupta period, "The length of the solar year was calculated with a precision which even the Greeks had not yet achieved". [3]

[1]: (Subramaniam 2001, 79) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.

[2]: (Schlingloff 2013: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DAMFF2NV.

[3]: (Keay 2010, 153) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X.


302 Yangshao absent Confident Expert -
Writing may have been invented in the Longshan [1] , no evidence for earlier writing in earlier times.

[1]: (Chang 1999, 64)


303 Erlitou present Inferred Expert -
"normally it is only after writing comes to be used for display that archaeology begins to find traces of it. Because administrative documents were almost certainly written on perishable materials like bamboo and papyrus, we will probably never find them." [1] We could infer that a ritual calendar was written down.

[1]: (Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.


304 Erligang present Inferred Expert -
"normally it is only after writing comes to be used for display that archaeology begins to find traces of it. Because administrative documents were almost certainly written on perishable materials like bamboo and papyrus, we will probably never find them." [1] We could infer that a ritual calendar was written down.

[1]: (Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.


305 Eastern Zhou present Inferred -
-
306 Early Wei Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
Clear that each Warring State kingdom kept records and produced a great deal of political, philosophical, and religious work; most literature from this period was destroyed in various wars however, and ultimately systematically destroyed by Qin and later Han Empires, though parts of the works produced in this period were adapted or transmitted to later authors.
307 Northern Song present Confident Expert -
-
308 Southern Song present Confident -
-
309 Jenne-jeno I absent Confident Expert -
"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [1] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [2] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [3]

[1]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.

[3]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.


310 Jenne-jeno II absent Confident Expert -
"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [1] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [2] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [3]

[1]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.

[3]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.


311 Early Wagadu Empire absent Inferred -
-
312 Jenne-jeno III absent Confident Expert -
"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [1] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [2] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [3]

[1]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.

[3]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.


313 Jenne-jeno IV absent Confident Expert -
Koran. Classic Arabic of Koran."In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne’s king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan." [1] "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [2] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events." [3] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao. [4]

[1]: (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)

[2]: (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.

[4]: (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.


314 Saadi Sultanate unknown Suspected Expert -
-
315 Segou Kingdom absent Inferred Expert -
Scholars use oral tradition to help reconstruct life in the Segou kingdom. [1] The polity may not have used written documents but there were written documents in the semi-autonomous, Islamic ’marka’ towns, populated by Soninke and other Mande-speakers.

[1]: (Monroe and Ogundiran 2012) J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.


316 Bamana kingdom present Inferred Expert -
-
317 Neguanje absent Confident Expert -
"None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas." [1]

[1]: (Hudson 2010, 5)


318 Tairona absent Confident Expert -
None of the native peoples developed a system of writing comparable to that of the Mayas, and much less would the Spaniards encounter a native empire such as that of either the Aztecs or Incas. By 1500 A.D., the most advanced of the indigenous peoples were two Chibcha groups: the Taironas and the Muiscas." [1]

[1]: (Hudson 2010, 5)


319 Early Xiongnu unknown Suspected Expert -
-
320 Xianbei Confederation absent Inferred Expert -
"According to the Sanguo zhi [Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms], because Kebineng’s lands were near the Chinese border, many Chinese people (Zhongguo ren 中國人) fled the warlord depredations of late Han and Three Kingdoms China to join Kebineng, teaching the Xianbei how to make Chinese-style arms and armor, and even introducing some literacy." [1]

[1]: (Holcombe 2013, 7-8)


321 Second Turk Khaganate present Inferred Expert -
"According to the Chinese chroniclers, there were 28 hereditary ranks or titles in the Turk political system, suggesting a formal bureaucracy but not an entirely centralized administration." [1]

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 225)


322 Early Mongols absent Confident Expert -
-
323 Late Mongols present Inferred Expert -
Present in Yuan and imperial Mongol times. Chinese astronomers "used Middle Eastern astronomical tables to revise Chinese calendars and produce a new calendar for the Mongol rulership." [1]

[1]: Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 155.


324 Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial absent Confident Expert -
Native time measurements followed the natural cycle: ’The Inonda people refer to the dry season as huvira because the huvira tree (Erythrina indica) flowers at that time. The wet season is divided into a number of periods which are recognized by the ripening of various nuts (especially hauga) and edible pit-pit (ina), and by the flowering of the garepa tree. For instance, the garepa season begins about November or December and lasts for two or three months. These are the wettest months of the year and plant growth is therefore rapid at that time. The pasiro (a variety of pit-pit) ripens about March, which is a time of more moderate rainfall. Food is in abundance at this period, and it is accordingly the most popular season for feasting.’ [1] During the colonial period, European calendars were superimposed on the native system: ’In recent years, two further calendars have become superimposed upon the traditional one: that of the Christian festivals and that of the European economy, notably monthly coffee sales from June to December and the payment of Local Government Council tax supposedly in September.’ [2]

[1]: Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 6

[2]: Schwimmer, Eric G. 1969. “Cultural Consequences Of A Volcanic Eruption Experienced By The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 26


325 Orokaiva - Colonial present Confident Expert -
Native time measurements followed the natural cycle: ’The Inonda people refer to the dry season as huvira because the huvira tree (Erythrina indica) flowers at that time. The wet season is divided into a number of periods which are recognized by the ripening of various nuts (especially hauga) and edible pit-pit (ina), and by the flowering of the garepa tree. For instance, the garepa season begins about November or December and lasts for two or three months. These are the wettest months of the year and plant growth is therefore rapid at that time. The pasiro (a variety of pit-pit) ripens about March, which is a time of more moderate rainfall. Food is in abundance at this period, and it is accordingly the most popular season for feasting.’ [1] During the colonial period, European calendars were superimposed on the native system: ’In recent years, two further calendars have become superimposed upon the traditional one: that of the Christian festivals and that of the European economy, notably monthly coffee sales from June to December and the payment of Local Government Council tax supposedly in September.’ [2] ’The weekly pattern. The Sivepe people speak of Wednesdays as ‘Mission day’ (for work at Sasembata mission station), Fridays as ‘Council day’ (for road maintenance and cleaning the village) and Sundays as a day of rest and attendance at church services. Of the remaining days, Monday and Tuesday are devoted to cash cropping, and Thursday and Saturday to subsistence. They claim to have been directed by the Higaturu Local Government Council to work according to this routine and while it is not strictly adhered to, the concept of the week is firmly implanted in the Orokaiva mind (see Table 6:9).’ [3]

[1]: Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 6

[2]: Schwimmer, Eric G. 1969. “Cultural Consequences Of A Volcanic Eruption Experienced By The Mount Lamington Orokaiva”, 26

[3]: Waddell, Eric, and P. A. Krinks 1968. “Organisation Of Production And Distribution Among The Orokaiva: An Analysis Of Work And Exchange In Two Communities Participating In Both The Subsistence And Monetary Sectors Of The Economy”, 106


326 Beaker Culture unknown Suspected Expert -
-
327 Atlantic Complex unknown Suspected Expert -
No information found in sources so far.
328 Hallstatt A-B1 unknown Suspected Expert -
-
329 Hallstatt B2-3 unknown Suspected Expert -
-
330 Hallstatt C unknown Suspected Expert -
-
331 Hallstatt D unknown Suspected Expert -
-
332 La Tene A-B1 absent Inferred Expert -
"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


333 La Tene B2-C1 absent Inferred Expert -
"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


334 La Tene C2-D absent Inferred Expert -
"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


335 Proto-Carolingian unknown Suspected Expert -
no clear evidence found
336 French Kingdom - Late Valois present Confident Expert -
-
337 French Kingdom - Early Bourbon present Confident Expert -
-
338 French Kingdom - Late Bourbon present Confident Expert -
-
339 Sarazm absent Confident Expert -
"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 17)


340 Andronovo absent Confident Expert -
"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 17)


341 Koktepe I absent Confident Expert -
"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 17)


342 Ancient Khwarazm absent Confident Expert -
"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 17)


343 Koktepe II absent Confident Expert -
"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 17)


344 Tocharians present Inferred Expert -
Khwarazm region: "The Khwarazmian solar calendar, related to the Zoroastrian system, is known to us thanks to Biruni, who argued that it was in advance of most other ancient systems for measuring time." [1]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


345 Sogdiana - City-States Period present Confident Expert -
"There was also what could be described as scientific literature in Sogdian, in particular a book about minerals, documents on medicine and on the calendar, and glossaries." [1]

[1]: (Marshak 1996, 255-257)


346 Khanate of Bukhara present Confident Expert -
-
347 Hmong - Late Qing absent Confident Expert -
’On the eighth day of their fourth lunar month (around mid-May), the Miao celebrate a festival during which they offer sacrifices to their ancestors and cultural heroes. This festival commemorates the day in which the heroes Ya Yi and Ya Nu died in battle while preventing a cruel ruler from his cruel custom of annually forcing the Miao to choose one of their beautiful young women to be his concubine. At the festival, they sing, play reed pipes (lusheng in Chinese) and bonze drums, and dance to honor their ancestors, ensure a good harvest and drive away evil spirits. On special occasions such as this, the Miao women wear large quantities of silver necklaces, bracelets and headdresses which jingle when they dance. This silver jewelry is handed down as a family heirloom.’ [1] However, this time-reckoning system need not entail written calendars. The A-Hmao language was first written by the Pollard script in apprx. 1905. [2]

[1]: http://www.arjumandsworld.com/blog/Miao-people-arjumand/

[2]: Duffy, John M. (2007). Writing from these roots: literacy in a Hmong-American community. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-3095-4.


348 Hmong - Early Chinese absent Confident Expert -
The Hmong used an unwritten lunar calendar: ’The method of reckoning time is that of the Chinese from whom it was evidently learned. A month is called a moon. There are twelve lunar months in one year and sometimes thirteen. Each month has thirty days and is divided into three periods of ten days each. Through the Chinese the Gregorian calendar is becoming known.’ [1] ’Recently, the Miao have adopted the Chinese custom of inviting friends and relatives to a feast and naming ceremony on the third day after a child’s birth. A name is sometimes adopted according to the time of birth. For instance, if a child is born in a certain month, it would be named after the month. The chief of the Miao at the time of the rebellion during the reign of Emperor Ch’ien Lung was called Wu pa-yüeh /Wu, Eighth Month/. Sometimes the name of the season when the birth occurred is adopted. In another case, the weight of the infant may be used as the name, for instance, an infant weighing so many chin at birth will be named for that weight. In still other cases, the name of an animal, a pig, goat, sheep, dog, or cow is used in the belief that the child will be easy to raise.’ [2] This is supported by the relative irrelevance of exact dates in the Miao system: ’The calendar used by the various Miao-I tribes at An-shun is the lunar calendar, but as a rule nobody remembers dates or knows the exact time of the New Year’s day, those having almanacs at home being very few. To count the days they generally use the symbolic animals of the twelve cyclical branches, - rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog and boar - because the markets are held on days named after these animals. But those who can calculate the days according to them are very few. Indeed the majority of the people do not even know the day and month in which they were born. The occurrence of an event on a particular day cannot be recalled with accuracy a month hence, and after a year it is relegated to limbo with at most perhaps a vague notion that it took place at the time of peach blossom, or in the planting season, or during harvest time.’ [3] The written calender used by the administration was not adopted for the management of Hmong local affairs: ’Although those who were educated knew about the foreign calendar followed by the Chinese Government, it meant almost nothing to them. What they consulted were the lunar calendar and the Farmers’ Almanac. For them the year began with the lunar New Year (February 15 in 1942) and its festival days. This was the slack season of the year, and for the first month they did as little work as possible. The lofts were full of faggots and brushwood for fuel; the granaries were full of rice, both “big” and glutinous, white and black. The New Year pigs had been killed and made into smoked meat, cured meat, and sausage. There were hundreds of glutinous rice cakes, jars of rice wine, and much bean curd on hand. The gardens furnished a greater variety of vegetables than at any other season of the year.’ [4]

[1]: Graham, David Crockett 1937. “Customs Of The Ch’Uan Miao”, 24

[2]: Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan", 140

[3]: Che-lin, Wu, Chen Kuo-chün, and Lien-en Tsao 1942. “Studies Of Miao-I Societies In Kweichow”, 98

[4]: Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, 29a


349 Ubaid absent Confident Expert -
There are lack of evidences suggesting that the writing system has been already invented.
350 Uruk unknown Suspected Expert -
-
351 Early Dynastic present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Cohen 1983, 9


352 Akkadian Empire present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Cohen 1981, 65


353 Ur - Dynasty III present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Szeląg 2007, 7


354 Second Dynasty of Isin present Inferred Expert -
"The Babylonians used a calendar based on cycles of both the moon and the sun. Time was divided into solar days, lunar months, and luni-solar years. Days ran from sunset to sunset and were divided into four parts or into twelve “double-hours.” Astronomical texts such as Enuma Anu Enlil provided information on how to calculate the length of daylight at different times in the year." [1]

[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 268) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.


355 Bazi Dynasty present Inferred Expert -
"The Babylonians used a calendar based on cycles of both the moon and the sun. Time was divided into solar days, lunar months, and luni-solar years. Days ran from sunset to sunset and were divided into four parts or into twelve “double-hours.” Astronomical texts such as Enuma Anu Enlil provided information on how to calculate the length of daylight at different times in the year." [1]

[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 268) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.


356 Dynasty of E absent Inferred Expert -
"Documentary sources also become very scarce." [1]

[1]: (Beaulieu 2017, 7Beaulieu, Paul-Alain. 2017. A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5T3ZBRQT.


357 Parthian Empire II present Confident Expert -
Evidence from Seleucia shows that the Parthians used the Babylonian system. [1] "In the indigenous Parthian lands the Zoroastrian calendar was also used beside the Seleucid era." [2]

[1]: G. R. F. Assar, ‘Parthian Calendars at Babylon and Seleucia on the Tigris’, Iran, 41 (2003), 171-91.

[2]: (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 144) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.


358 Abbasid Caliphate II present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
359 Pre-Ceramic Period absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


360 Formative Period absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


361 Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


362 Susiana A absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


363 Susiana B absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


364 Susiana - Early Ubaid absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


365 Susiana - Late Ubaid absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


366 Susa I absent Confident Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


367 Susa II present Inferred Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase was from 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


368 Susa III present Inferred Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase was from 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


369 Elam - Awan Dynasty I present Inferred Expert -
"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions’ needs." [1] Liverani says the so-called "urban revolution" of the Uruk phase was from 3800-3000 BCE. [2]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.


370 Elam - Shimashki Period present Inferred Expert -
Literacy and concept of time present.
371 Elam - Early Sukkalmah present Inferred Expert -
Literacy and concept of time.
372 Elam - Late Sukkalmah present Inferred Expert -
Literacy and concept of time.
373 Elam - Kidinuid Period present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 47


374 Elam - Igihalkid Period present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 47


375 Elam - Shutrukid Period present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 47


376 Elymais II present Inferred Expert -
inferred continuity with earlier periods
377 Ak Koyunlu present Confident Expert -
Islamic calendar.
378 Qajar present Inferred Expert -
inferred continuity with earlier and later periods
379 Badarian absent Inferred Expert -
-
380 Naqada I absent Inferred Expert -
The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels [1] . They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However "none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives" and "the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as "hieroglyphic writing"" [2] . It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system [3]

[1]: Köhler, E. C. "Theories of State Formation". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.

[2]: Kahl, J. "Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.

[3]: Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.


381 Naqada II absent Inferred Expert -
The earliest phonetic hieroglyphic writing was found in the tomb J at the Abytos Cemetary U - on the pottery vessels and small bone/ivory labels [1] . They are dated to Naqada IIIA. But it should be noticed that already in Naqada I, signs similar to hieroglyphs have been found, especially on the pottery vessels (pot marks). However "none of these signs hints at the existence of phonograms, phonetic complements or detenninatives" and "the absence of an important component of the hieroglyphic writing system does not allow us to designate these signs as "hieroglyphic writing"" [2] . It can be rather treated as an abstract symbolic system [3]

[1]: Köhler, E. C. "Theories of State Formation". [in:] Wendrich, W. [ed.]. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. pg: 41.

[2]: Kahl, J. "Hieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC: an Analysis of Systems". Archeo-NiI 11 (2001); 122, 124.

[3]: Meza, A. 2012. ANCIENT EGYPT BEFORE WRITING: From Markings to Hieroglyphs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation. pg: 25.


382 Egypt - Dynasty 0 unknown Suspected Expert -
Unknown, but lunar calendar was present and could have been written using hieroglyphs. "by Dynasty 0, writing was used by scribes and artisans of the Egyptian state." [1] previous code: inferred present

[1]: (Bard 2000, 74)


383 Egypt - Dynasty I present Inferred Expert -
they possessed a lunar calendar and the hieroglyphs with which they could write it down
384 Egypt - Dynasty II present Inferred Expert -
they possessed a lunar calendar and the hieroglyphs with which they could write it down
385 Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom present Confident Expert -
[1]

[1]: Nolan, John S. 2003. "The Original Lunar Calendar and Cattle Counts in Old Kingdom Egypt." Basel Egyptology Prize 1: Junior Research in Egyptian History, Archaeology, and Philology:75-97.


386 Egypt - Late Old Kingdom present Confident Expert -
-
387 Egypt - Period of the Regions present Inferred Expert -
-
388 Egypt - Middle Kingdom present Confident Expert -
-
389 Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period present Confident Expert -
-
390 Egypt - Kushite Period present Confident Expert -
Egyptian likely in use, transmitted via temples.
391 Oaxaca - Tierras Largas absent Confident Expert -
The first written records in the Valley of Oaxaca are from the Rosario phase (700-500 BCE). [1] [2] Written records are therefore coded as absent for this period.

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London.


392 Oaxaca - San Jose absent Confident Expert -
The first written records in the Valley of Oaxaca are from the Rosario phase (700-500 BCE). [1] [2] Written records are therefore coded as absent for this period.

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London.


393 Oaxaca - Rosario present Confident Expert -
Glyphs carved onto Monument 3 at San Jose Mogote refer to the 260-day ritual calendar, based on analogy with later periods. [1] [2]

[1]: Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). "Primary state formation in Mesoamerica." Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179

[2]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p130


394 Early Monte Alban I present Confident Expert -
Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods [1] [2] More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time. [3]

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). "Primary state formation in Mesoamerica." Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179

[3]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159


395 Monte Alban Late I present Confident Expert -
Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods [1] [2] More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time. [3]

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). "Primary state formation in Mesoamerica." Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179

[3]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159


396 Monte Alban II present Confident Expert -
Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods [1] [2] More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time. [3]

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). "Primary state formation in Mesoamerica." Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179

[3]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159


397 Monte Alban III present Confident Expert -
Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods [1] [2] More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time. [3]

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York.

[2]: Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). "Primary state formation in Mesoamerica." Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179

[3]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159


398 Monte Alban IIIB and IV present Confident Expert -
The ritual and secular calendars from the earlier periods continued to be in use until the Spanish conquest in the 1520s. [1]

[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.


399 Monte Alban V Early Postclassic present Inferred -
-
400 Monte Alban V Late Postclassic present Inferred -
-
401 Monte Alban V present Confident Expert -
Spanish written records refer to the Zapotec calendars, one 365 day calendar and one 260 day ‘ritual’ calendar called ‘pije/ piye’, which links to the Zapotec word ‘pé’ for life). [1]

[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). "Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos." American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376


402 Early Nyoro absent Confident -
-
403 Cwezi Dynasty absent Confident -
-
404 Bito Dynasty absent Confident 1700 CE 1859 CE
-
405 Bito Dynasty unknown Suspected 1860 CE 1894 CE
-
406 Sabaean Commonwealth present Inferred Expert -
"Sabaʾ’s culture was represented through a language, Sabaʾic, a pantheon, a calendar, and a dating system, all specific to this kingdom." [1]

[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE.


407 Qatabanian Commonwealth present Inferred Expert -
"Sabaʾ’s culture was represented through a language, Sabaʾic, a pantheon, a calendar, and a dating system, all specific to this kingdom." [1]

[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3.


408 Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan present Inferred Expert -
"Sabaʾ’s culture was represented through a language, Sabaʾic, a pantheon, a calendar, and a dating system, all specific to this kingdom." [1]

[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3.


409 Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty present Confident Expert -
-
410 Ottoman Empire Late Period present Confident -
-
411 Republic of Venice III present Confident Expert -
-
412 Republic of Venice IV present Confident Expert -
-
413 Hohokam Culture absent Confident -
There were no written records left by the Sonoran Desert People. [1]

[1]: ”History & Culture - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service),”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJU2S97P


414 Antebellum US present Confident -
-
415 Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I present Confident -
-
416 Napoleonic France present Confident -
-
417 Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II present Confident -
-
418 Early United Mexican States present Confident -
-
419 Spanish Empire II present Confident Expert 1716 CE 1814 CE
Spain had adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582.(Kamen 1998: 248) Kamen, Henry. 1998. Philip of Spain. New Haven: Yale University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2SSCBKS
420 Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II present Confident Expert -
During the period from 1776 to 1910, the Russian Empire used the Julian calendar. [1]

[1]: “Russian Calendar History,” accessed November 24, 2023, https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/Russia.html. Zotero link: 6ISBAAIB


421 Golden Horde present Confident -
The Turkic version of the Chinese zodiac calendar was used by the mongols, which was a twelve-year animal calendar. [1]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 535. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


422 Us Reconstruction-Progressive present Confident -
-
423 Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase absent Confident -
“Although the ancient people of the Southwest didn’t have a written language, they had effective ways to communicate.” [1]

[1]: (“Chaco Culture - Communication”) “Chaco Culture” NPS Museum Collections, accessed May 8, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/chcu/index6.html. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NMRVDA5I


424 Plantagenet England present Confident -
-
425 British Empire I present Confident -
England/Britain used the Julian calendar until adopting the Gregorian calendar in the mid-eighteenth century. [1]

[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: xvi) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U


426 Late Classic Tikal present Confident -
“Although not one of the richest graves at Tikal in terms of jade or other precious goods, Animal Skull’s Burial 195, embedded within Temple 32 of the North Acropolis, is certainly one of the most fascinating… The wooden hoards feature a damaged but legible date of 9.8.0.0.0 or 593, and go on to provide Animal Skull’s name, titles and Tikal emblem, as well as his status as a 3 K’atun Ajaw (i.e. aged between 39 and 59 years).” [1]

[1]: (Martin and Grube 2000: 41) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ


427 Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I present Confident Expert -
The Russian Empire used the Julian calendar. [1]

[1]: “Russian Calendar History,” accessed November 24, 2023, https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/Russia.html. Zotero link: 6ISBAAIB


428 Soviet Union present Confident Expert 1923 CE 1991 CE
In 1923, a radical change in the calendar took place. Soviet Russia abolished both the Julian calendar, used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the official Gregorian calendar that had been installed by Lenin. A new calendar was introduced, in which the weeks were changed and all religious feasts and holy days were replaced by five national public holidays associated with the Revolution. [1]

[1]: “Russian Calendar History.” Accessed November 24, 2023. https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/Russia.html. Zotero link: 6ISBAAIB


429 Anglo-Saxon England II present Confident -
At Canterbury Cathedral a silver tablet was found which listed the months and when hung from a chain acted as a portable sundial. [1]

[1]: (Cathedral House and The Precincts Canterbury) ‘Anglo-Saxon Canterbury’, Canterbury Cathedral (blog). https://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/heritage/history/anglo-saxon-canterbury/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KTYTGA3V


430 Early Modern Sierra Leone absent Inferred 1650 CE 1832 CE
The following quote implies that indigenous writing emerged in the region in the 19th century. "The first documented autochthonous, Mande script to appear in West Africa was the one created by Duala Bukere from Grand Cape Mount County in Liberia who created a Vai syllabary in 1833, which has been standardized to 212 characters (Dalby, 1967: 14-18). [...] Appearing first in the region, the Vai syllabary became the prototype for other writing systems that were created in the inter-wars among indigenous peoples in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Speakers of southern Mande languages such as the Mende (1921) and the Kpelle (1935), and speakers of the Kru languages such as the Bassa (1920-25) have based their writing systems on the syllabary (Dalby, 1967: 2-4)." [1]

[1]: (Oyler 2001: 75) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X7HQWWH9/collection.


431 Early Modern Sierra Leone present Confident 1833 CE 1896 CE
The following quote implies that indigenous writing emerged in the region in the 19th century. "The first documented autochthonous, Mande script to appear in West Africa was the one created by Duala Bukere from Grand Cape Mount County in Liberia who created a Vai syllabary in 1833, which has been standardized to 212 characters (Dalby, 1967: 14-18). [...] Appearing first in the region, the Vai syllabary became the prototype for other writing systems that were created in the inter-wars among indigenous peoples in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Speakers of southern Mande languages such as the Mende (1921) and the Kpelle (1935), and speakers of the Kru languages such as the Bassa (1920-25) have based their writing systems on the syllabary (Dalby, 1967: 2-4)." [1]

[1]: (Oyler 2001: 75) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X7HQWWH9/collection.


432 Kaabu present Inferred -
Calendars likely produced and used by literate, high-ranking mercantile minority. "In southern Senegambia, where non-Manding populations predominated, Manding was a prestigious language of the pagan aristocracy and, on the other hand, the language of the Muslim merchant network of Jakhanke. The existence of Manding Ajami in that area was already attested in the first half of the 18th century (Labat 1728; cited by Giesing & Costa-Dias 2007: 63), long before the pagan rule of the ñàncoo elite of the Kaabu was definitely smashed by Muslim Fulbe troops from Fuuta Jalon. In any case, the emergence of Ajami is not related to the establishment of a Muslim political power in this area: the main holders of Islamic writing in the area, the Jakhanke merchants, were for centuries integrated into the social system of the Kaabu confederation and often served as advisers and intermediates for the political elites." [1] "A number of terms have been used in this volume to refer to the usage of Arabic script for languages other than Arabic. Crosslinguistically, such writing systems are often termed ‘Arabic literature’, ‘Islamic literature’ or ‘Islamic writings’, and locally they are known by a large number of names, such as Wolofal, or Kiarabu. The term Ajami in particular (or variations, such as Äjam, Ajamiya, etc.), derived from the Arabic word ʿaǧam ‘non-Arab; Persian’, has gained some degree of popularity in academic literature and is also encountered as a self-denomination for these writing systems in some languages, such as Hausa." [2]

[1]: (Vydrin 2014: 201-202) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E8Z57DNC/collection.

[2]: (Mumin and Verstegh 2014: 1) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/PVIK4HGV/collection.


433 Futa Jallon present Inferred -
"In the field of religion and culture, the nineteenth century is said to have witnessed the golden age of Islam in the Futa Jalon. It was the century of great scholars and the growth of Islamic culture. All the disciplines of the Quran were known and taught: translation, the hadiths, law, apologetics, the ancillary sciences such as grammar, rhetoric, literature, astronomy, local works in Pular and Arabic, and mysticism. Nineteenth-century European visitors were highly impressed by the extent of the Islamization, which was visible in the large number of mosques and schools at all levels, the degree of scholarship, the richness of the libraries, and the widespread practice of Islamic worship. All this seems to have been facilitated by the use of the local language, Pular, as a medium of teaching and popularization of Islamic rules and doctrine." [1]

[1]: (Barry 2005: 539) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/6TXWGHAX/item-list


434 Mane absent Inferred -
The following quote implies that indigenous writing emerged in the region in the 19th century. "The first documented autochthonous, Mande script to appear in West Africa was the one created by Duala Bukere from Grand Cape Mount County in Liberia who created a Vai syllabary in 1833, which has been standardized to 212 characters (Dalby, 1967: 14-18). [...] Appearing first in the region, the Vai syllabary became the prototype for other writing systems that were created in the inter-wars among indigenous peoples in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Speakers of southern Mande languages such as the Mende (1921) and the Kpelle (1935), and speakers of the Kru languages such as the Bassa (1920-25) have based their writing systems on the syllabary (Dalby, 1967: 2-4)." [1]

[1]: (Oyler 2001: 75) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X7HQWWH9/collection.


435 Middle and Late Nok absent Inferred -
"In sum, we have not found unambiguous evidence of social complexity and the often suggested highly advanced social system of the Nok Culture." [1]

[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.


436 Kanem unknown Suspected -
The following quote suggests that this era has left behind few written texts. "Historical information on those emerging years of the empire is dim and has to be carefully extracted from the accounts of Arab writers (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981), the scanty internal evidence in the Kanem-Borno king lists (Lange 1977), and the few fragments of internal scripts that have been recorded by the German traveler Heinrich Barth (1857-59; Lange 1987) and the British colonial officer Richmond Palmer (1967; 1970)." [1]

[1]: (Gronenborn 2002: 103)


437 Middle and Late Nok absent Inferred -
"In sum, we have not found unambiguous evidence of social complexity and the often suggested highly advanced social system of the Nok Culture." [1]

[1]: (Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.


438 Pre-Sape Sierra Leone absent Inferred -
The following quote implies that indigenous writing emerged in the region in the 19th century. "The first documented autochthonous, Mande script to appear in West Africa was the one created by Duala Bukere from Grand Cape Mount County in Liberia who created a Vai syllabary in 1833, which has been standardized to 212 characters (Dalby, 1967: 14-18). [...] Appearing first in the region, the Vai syllabary became the prototype for other writing systems that were created in the inter-wars among indigenous peoples in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Speakers of southern Mande languages such as the Mende (1921) and the Kpelle (1935), and speakers of the Kru languages such as the Bassa (1920-25) have based their writing systems on the syllabary (Dalby, 1967: 2-4)." [1]

[1]: (Oyler 2001: 75) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X7HQWWH9/collection.


439 Sape absent Inferred -
The following quote implies that indigenous writing emerged in the region in the 19th century. "The first documented autochthonous, Mande script to appear in West Africa was the one created by Duala Bukere from Grand Cape Mount County in Liberia who created a Vai syllabary in 1833, which has been standardized to 212 characters (Dalby, 1967: 14-18). [...] Appearing first in the region, the Vai syllabary became the prototype for other writing systems that were created in the inter-wars among indigenous peoples in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Speakers of southern Mande languages such as the Mende (1921) and the Kpelle (1935), and speakers of the Kru languages such as the Bassa (1920-25) have based their writing systems on the syllabary (Dalby, 1967: 2-4)." [1]

[1]: (Oyler 2001: 75) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/X7HQWWH9/collection.


440 Dutch Empire present Confident -
-
441 Kingdom of Jimma present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


442 Adal Sultanate present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Classen/titleCreatorYear/items/R727NPC6/item-list


443 Tunni Sultanate present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R727NPC6/library


444 Ajuran Sultanate present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R727NPC6/library


445 Habr Yunis present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


446 Kingdom of Gomma present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


447 Sultanate of Geledi present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R727NPC6/library


448 Shoa Sultanate present Confident -
"The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite." [1]

[1]: (Chekroun and Hirsch 2020: 94-95) Seshat url: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/TA84VGHX/item-list


449 Harla Kingdom present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


450 Hadiya Sultanate present Confident -
Islamic calendar. “The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


451 Ifat Sultanate present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Classen/titleCreatorYear/items/R727NPC6/item-list


452 Medri Bahri present Confident -
“Among Tigrinya Christians, the Church dominated every aspect of social life through its laws, calendar, and ownership of roughly one-third of Kebessa land.” [1]

[1]: (Connell and Killion 2011, 410) Connell, Dan and Killion, Tom. 2011. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Second Edition. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24ZMGPAA/collection


453 Majeerteen Sultanate present Confident -
“For example, the existence of a double recording system of lunar months is clearly documented in Somalia. There was normal usage to distinguish al-sana al-qama-riyya (‘lunar year’) – reckoned on the basis of months corresponding to the effective sightings of the new moon – from al-sana al-ta’ rīh iyya (‘civil year’) – reckoned according to the written Islamic calendar.” [1]

[1]: (Classen 2010, 1654) Classen, Albrecht. 2010. Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms, Methods, Trends. Berlin: De Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R727NPC6/library


454 Funj Sultanate present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


455 Kingdom of Gumma present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


456 Emirate of Harar present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


457 Early Sultanate of Aussa present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar in order, are as follows: (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rabi’al-Awwal; (4) Rabi’al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada’l-Ula; (6) Jumada’l-Akhira; (7) Rajab; (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’l-Qa’da; and (12) Dhu’l-Hijja. For administrative and agricultural reasons, medieval Muslims also used derivations of existing solar and/or fixed-month calendars from the region;” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Josef W. Meri Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K Index. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8BDKDQRX/library


458 Isaaq Sultanate present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


459 Proto-Yoruba absent Confident -
The following quote suggests that a Yoruba written alphabet was invented in the nineteenth century. "Àjàyí[...] returned in 1841 to the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. Now officially known as Samuel Crowther, he [...] was the architect of Yorùbá modernization through his efforts as a linguist to reduce the Yorùbá language to writing, a major revolution in Yorùbá cultural and intellectual history. His accomplishments in this regard included the translation of the Bible into Yorùbá and the development of the first Yorùbá dictionary." [1]

[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 391)


460 Classical Ife absent Confident -
The following quote suggests that a Yoruba written alphabet was invented in the nineteenth century. "Àjàyí[...] returned in 1841 to the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. Now officially known as Samuel Crowther, he [...] was the architect of Yorùbá modernization through his efforts as a linguist to reduce the Yorùbá language to writing, a major revolution in Yorùbá cultural and intellectual history. His accomplishments in this regard included the translation of the Bible into Yorùbá and the development of the first Yorùbá dictionary." [1]

[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 391)


461 Late Formative Yoruba absent Confident -
The following quote suggests that a Yoruba written alphabet was invented in the nineteenth century. "Àjàyí[...] returned in 1841 to the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. Now officially known as Samuel Crowther, he [...] was the architect of Yorùbá modernization through his efforts as a linguist to reduce the Yorùbá language to writing, a major revolution in Yorùbá cultural and intellectual history. His accomplishments in this regard included the translation of the Bible into Yorùbá and the development of the first Yorùbá dictionary." [1]

[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 391)


462 Allada absent Confident -
“In Allada the local people, it was noted in 1670, in the absence of writing used knotted strings to keep records of various matters, including commercial transactions (“the price of goods”).” [1]

[1]: Austin, Gareth, et al. “Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, 2001, p. 144: 33. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SPXH2IUW/collection


463 Whydah absent Inferred -
No writing system in Allada the year before Whydah became independent, so likely the same in Whydah: “Another question arising from the incidence of credit in both the local economy and the overseas trade is the nature of the indigenous system of recordkeeping. In Allada the local people, it was noted in 1670, in the absence of writing used knotted strings to keep records of various matters, including commercial transactions (“the price of goods”). Several later accounts allude to other mechanical devices for keeping financial (and fiscal) records in Dahomey.” [1]

[1]: Austin, Gareth, et al. “Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, 2001, p. 144: 33. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SPXH2IUW/collection


464 Oyo absent Confident -
The following quote suggests that a Yoruba written alphabet was invented in the nineteenth century. "Àjàyí[...] returned in 1841 to the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. Now officially known as Samuel Crowther, he [...] was the architect of Yorùbá modernization through his efforts as a linguist to reduce the Yorùbá language to writing, a major revolution in Yorùbá cultural and intellectual history. His accomplishments in this regard included the translation of the Bible into Yorùbá and the development of the first Yorùbá dictionary." [1]

[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 391)


465 Proto-Yoruboid absent Confident -
The following quote suggests that a Yoruba written alphabet was invented in the nineteenth century. "Àjàyí[...] returned in 1841 to the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra. Now officially known as Samuel Crowther, he [...] was the architect of Yorùbá modernization through his efforts as a linguist to reduce the Yorùbá language to writing, a major revolution in Yorùbá cultural and intellectual history. His accomplishments in this regard included the translation of the Bible into Yorùbá and the development of the first Yorùbá dictionary." [1]

[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 391)


466 Sokoto Caliphate present Confident -
Islamic calendar.
467 Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì absent Inferred -
No references found in the consulted literature to a written form of Nri that doesn’t use the Latin alphabet. “If these are the problems to be faced in languages that have written form hundreds of years ago one cannot imagine what problems there are in dealing with languages whose written forms are yet to be established.” [1] A calendar complex existed, but there’s nothing to suggest it was written down. “Nri dominance was founded on the control and manipulation of the agricultural cycle and calendar. The Igbo year was a rather complicated one since it was not only divided into days […], weeks […] moons […]; but also into ritual and farming cycles. This created the need for specialists who, from observing the heavenly bodies and the seasons, would declare the beginning and the end of each moon or cycle or year. This, in Igbo, was known as Igu Afo (counting the year) and was very important since it was tied to the very survival of the community.” [2]

[1]: Onwuejeogwu, M. A. (1975). Some Fundamental Problems in the Application of Lexicostatistics in the Study of African Languages. Paideuma, 21, 6–17: 10. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IISK3KCM/collection

[2]: Afigbo, A. E. (1981). The Holy City of Nri. In Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (pp. 31–68). University Press in association with Oxford University Press; 51. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RIZ4Q3BG/collection


468 Hausa bakwai present Inferred -
Islamic calendar likely came with mallams.
469 Kanem-Borno present Inferred -
Given the highly Islamicised nature of the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the adoption of the Islamic calendar is very likely. No clear reference was, however, found on its use in the scholarship.
470 Foys absent Confident -
“The question as to the manner in which a record of the age of these children was kept by a people who had no writing, poses itself here.” [1]

[1]: HERSKOVITS, M. J. (1932). POPULATION STATISTICS IN THE KINGDOM OF DAHOMEY. Human Biology, 4(2), 252–261: 258. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8T74FM7D/collection


471 Benin Empire absent Inferred -
“Since the end of the 15th century, a great deal of material about Benin has been supplied by sailors, traders, etc., returning to Europe. However, information on the Edo people before this date is very difficult to obtain, as there was no written record and the oral record is at best rather fragmentary.” [1] “The theme of this study presses the sources for the reconstruction of Benin military history to its limits because written documents scarcely exist, except for the reports and accounts of European visitors.” [2]

[1]: Bondarenko, Dmitri M., and Peter M. Roese. ‘Benin Prehistory: The Origin and Settling down of the Edo’. Anthropos 94, no. 4/6 (1999): 542–52: 542. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Y4V3D623/collection

[2]: Osadolor, O. B. (2001). The Military System of Benin Kingdom, c.1440–1897. University of Hamburg, Germany: 27–28. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4RZF5H5/collection


472 Kingdom of Cayor present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


473 Kingdom of Saloum present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


474 Kingdom of Baol present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


475 Kingdom of Sine present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


476 Kingdom of Waalo present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


477 Jolof Empire present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


478 Imamate of Futa Toro present Confident -
Islamic calendar. “The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


479 Denyanke Kingdom present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


480 Kingdom of Jolof present Confident -
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


481 Buganda unknown Suspected 1860 CE 1894 CE
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


482 Buganda absent Confident 1700 CE 1859 CE
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


483 Toro absent Confident -
"As we have seen, to secure their essential ties, the ancient states, lacking writing and money, relied on kinship, trust, and personal relationships, which were periodically rekindled by direct contact and exchanged words." [1]

[1]: (Chrétien 2006: 178) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.


484 Buganda absent Confident -
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


485 Karagwe absent Confident -
The following quote characterises the people of Tanganyika (the broader region of which Karagwe formed part) as "pre-literate" in the early 19th century. "We do not know what inland Tanganyikans believed in the early nineteenth century. They were pre-literate, and the religions of pre-literate peoples not only leave little historical evidence but are characteristically eclectic, mutable, and unsystematic." [1]

[1]: (Iliffe 1979: 26) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.


486 Kingdom of Nyinginya absent Confident -
Languages spoken in this polity were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [1]

[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


487 Nkore absent Confident -
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


488 Ndorwa absent Confident -
Languages spoken in Rwanda were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [1]

[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


489 Burundi absent Confident -
"As we have seen, to secure their essential ties, the ancient states, lacking writing and money, relied on kinship, trust, and personal relationships, which were periodically rekindled by direct contact and exchanged words." [1] Languages spoken in this polity were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [2]

[1]: (Chrétien 2006: 178) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.

[2]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


490 Mubari absent Confident -
Languages spoken in Rwanda were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [1]

[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


491 Gisaka absent Confident -
Languages spoken in Rwanda were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [1]

[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


492 Fipa absent Confident -
The following quote characterises the people of Tanganyika (the broader region of which the Fipa formed part) as "pre-literate" in the early 19th century. "We do not know what inland Tanganyikans believed in the early nineteenth century. They were pre-literate, and the religions of pre-literate peoples not only leave little historical evidence but are characteristically eclectic, mutable, and unsystematic." [1]

[1]: (Iliffe 1979: 26) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.


493 Bugesera absent Confident -
Languages spoken in Rwanda were turned into "written artefacts" only in the colonial period: "Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times. The missionary and colonial interventions, therefore, rather focused on lexicon, resulting in status planning initiatives and contributing to the compilation of dictionaries, favouring a specific dialect over others. [...] The most salient and visible adaptations were a part of the primarily orthographic alignments of textualisation processes (turning languages into written artefacts)." [1]

[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection.


494 Nkore absent Confident 1750 CE 1859 CE
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


495 Nkore unknown Suspected 1860 CE 1901 CE
"Literacy entered Uganda for the first time with the introduction of Islam in the late 1860’s and for nearly a decade instruction in Islam was progressing and flourishing at the royal court. When literacy was introduced into the kingdom of Buganda, it was confined to speakers of Arabic and Kiswahili. " [1]

[1]: (Pawliková-Vilhanová 2014: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T7IMKZJJ.


496 Buhaya absent Confident -
The following quote characterises the people of Tanganyika (the broader region of which Buhaya formed part) as "pre-literate" in the early 19th century. "We do not know what inland Tanganyikans believed in the early nineteenth century. They were pre-literate, and the religions of pre-literate peoples not only leave little historical evidence but are characteristically eclectic, mutable, and unsystematic." [1]

[1]: (Iliffe 1979: 26) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.


497 Pandya Dynasty present Inferred -
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection


498 Early Cholas present Confident -
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library


499 Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom present Confident -
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection


500 Early Pandyas present Confident -
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library


501 Carnatic Sultanate present Confident -
Islamic calendar. “The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]

[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list


502 Late Pallava Empire present Confident -
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library


503 Kalabhra Dynasty present Confident -
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library


504 Nayaks of Thanjavur present Confident -
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection


505 Nayaks of Madurai present Confident -
“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” [1] “The Pudu Mandapa is sometimes called the Vasanta or Spring Mandapa, a reference to the time of year when it is used. Vasanta is the Sanskrit term for the two Tamil months of Cittirai and Vaikaci (May-June).” [2]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection

[2]: (Branfoot 2001, 195) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection


506 Portuguese Empire - Early Modern present Confident -
-
507 Classic Tana unknown Suspected -
-
508 Early Tana 1 unknown Suspected -
-
509 Early Tana 1 unknown Suspected -
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510 Early Tana 2 unknown Suspected -
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511 Early Tana 2 unknown Suspected -
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512 Late East Africa Iron Age absent Confident -
-
513 Late East Africa Iron Age absent Confident -
-
514 Pre-Maravi absent Confident -
-
515 Pre-Maravi absent Confident -
-
516 Early Maravi absent Confident -
-
517 Early Maravi absent Confident -
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518 Northern Maravi Kingdom absent Confident -
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519 Northern Maravi Kingdom absent Confident -
-
520 Maravi Empire absent Confident -
-
521 Maravi Empire absent Confident -
-
522 British Empire IIIIIIIIII present Confident -
Britain used the Gregorian calendar from the mid-eighteenth century. [1]

[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: xvi) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U


523 Sena Dynasty present Confident -
-
524 Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty present Confident -
The HRE used the Julian calendar. Saints days became a regular fixture of the calendar in the twelfth century. [1]

[1]: Wilson 2016: 81, 130. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA