Home Region: Iran (Southwest Asia)

Parthian Empire II

41 CE 226 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 iq_parthian_emp_2 / IrPart2

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

247 BCE 40 CE Parthian Empire I (ir_parthian_emp_1) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

205 CE 487 CE Sasanid Empire I (ir_sassanid_emp_1) [continuity]

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General Description

Originally the Parthian were a nomadic tribe, called the Parni, from northeastern Iran. The date of their invasion of ‘Parthia’ is usually given as 247 BCE. The campaigns of Mithridates I (171-138 BCE) spread the authority of the Parthian kings. In 113 BCE Mithridates II took the title of ‘King of Kings’. For 300 years from 92 BC, the Parthian Empire was seen as the main foe of the Roman Empire. Parthian power derived from their military successes and control of commerce. Trade flourished as Parthia was an intermediary between Rome and Far East and became part of the network of Silk Roads. "There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos." ^[1] The provinces and cities outside the Parthia heartlands paid tribute or allegiance to the ‘king of kings’, but regional lords retained their own power. Although the Parthians themselves were Zoroastrian, the empire was multi-ethnic and multi-religious and revolts against the Parthian King were common. There were also challenges form within the Parthian elites. Parthian Kings were chosen from the Arascid clan, but they were ’appointed’ by nobles rather than automatically succeeding to rule. After 40 BCE Parthian military power was weakening and they could not mount offensive operations into Roman territory. They suffered a series of military defeats to the Romans and a smallpox epidemic between 161 CE and 217 CE. However it was invasion by the Sassanians from Iran that ended their rule.
Bureaucracy characteristics. “It was status as an agnate [kin group or clan] in one of the noble groups that alone gave access to appointment to any state or court official of importance. Certain offices even became, with the passing of time, hereditary in a particular group”. The groups had "preferential right" to hold the office. ^[2]
Law. There were law courts in the main town of the districts and in every rural district ^[3]
Military Technologies. Our information on Parthian armies comes mainly from their enemies, especially Roman sources. Like many central Asian armies, horses were central to their war fighting, foot solders less so. Parthian cavalry was divided into heavy and light forces. The ’Parthian shot’ became infamous to the Romans: Plutarch describes their tactic at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Parthian cavalry pretended to flee, then turned in the saddle and fired their bow and arrows. ^[4] Cassius Dio [c. CE 155 - 235] in Roman History: “The Parthians make no use of a shield, but their forces consist of mounted archers and pikemen, mostly in full armour. Their infantry is small, made up of the weaker men; but even these are all archers. They practise from boyhood, and the climate and the land combine to aid both horsemanship and archery... They are really formidable in warfare, but nevertheless they have a reputation greater than their achievements, because in spite of their not having gained anything from the Romans, and having besides, given up certain portions of their own domain, they have not yet been enslaved, but even to this day hold their own in the wars they wage against us.” ^[5]
"The standard turn-out would have included helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes with a neck guard and/or an aventail of lamellar, scale or mail, sometimes sporting a small plume of horsehair, either dyed or left natural; and a corselet of lamellar, mail or scale for the torso. Arm guards were also worn, and some wore guantlets too. The feet were often protected by armour over mail ’socks’, and mail was often used to bridge defences at limb joints. A small fabric tabard and/or cloak might be worn, and this was very likely to be made of a rich material such as silk brocade." ^[6]

[1]: (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

[2]: Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol.3, P.645

[3]: Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983),vol. III, p.676.

[4]: Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), P.187

[5]: quoted in Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), p.186

[6]: (Penrose 2008, 223) Penrose, Jane. 2008. Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Osprey Publishing.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

5 Capital

4 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

2 Population of the Largest Settlement

2 Polity Territory

2 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

2 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

14 Power Transition

Instability Events

13 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2) was in:
(41 CE 219 CE)	Southern Mesopotamia

Home NGA: Southern Mesopotamia

General Variables

Identity and Location Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	40 S	41 CE 226 CE
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Original Name	Parthian Empire II	41 CE 226 CE
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Capital	Nisa	41 CE 226 CE
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Capital	Hekatompylos	41 CE 226 CE
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Capital	Rhagae	41 CE 226 CE
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Capital	Ectatana	41 CE 226 CE
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Capital	Ctesiphon	41 CE 226 CE
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Alternative Name	Arsacid Empire	41 CE 226 CE
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Alternative Name	Parthia	41 CE 226 CE
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Alternative Name	Parthians	41 CE 226 CE
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Alternative Name	Arsacid Kingdom	41 CE 226 CE
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Temporal Bounds Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	[50 CE ➜ 100 CE]
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Duration	[41 CE ➜ 226 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---]	41 CE 226 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Greco-Bactrian	41 CE 226 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Sassanid Empire I	41 CE 226 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[3,500,000 to 4,000,000] km²	41 CE 226 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	41 CE 226 CE
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Preceding Entity 247 BCE 40 CE	Parthian Empire I (ir_parthian_emp_1) [continuity]
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Succeeding Entity 205 CE 487 CE	Sasanid Empire I (ir_sassanid_emp_1) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state	41 CE 226 CE
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Language Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	41 CE 226 CE
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Language	Greek	41 CE 226 CE
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Language	Pahlavi	41 CE 226 CE
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Religion Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Zoroastrianism	41 CE 226 CE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	41 CE 226 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	400,000 people	100 CE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	[20,000 to 40,000] people	200 CE
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Polity Territory	1,900,000 km²	100 CE
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Polity Territory	1,800,000 km²	200 CE
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Polity Population	4,750,000 people	100 CE
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Polity Population	5,000,000 people	200 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[4 to 5]	41 CE 226 CE
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Religious Level	3	41 CE 226 CE
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Military Level	6	41 CE 226 CE
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Administrative Level	[5 to 6]	41 CE 226 CE
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Professions Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present Disputed	41 CE 226 CE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Disputed	41 CE 226 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Merit Promotion	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Examination System	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Law Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Judge	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Court	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Port	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Canal	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Bridge	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Information / Writing System Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Script	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Philosophy	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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History	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Fiction	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Calendar	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Information / Money Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Precious Metal	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Article	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Information / Postal System Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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General Postal Service	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Courier	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Information / Measurement System Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Moat	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Fortified Camp	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Ditch	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Military use of Metals Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Iron	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Copper	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Bronze	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Projectiles Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Sling	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Self Bow	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Javelin	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Handheld weapons Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Sword	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Spear	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Polearm	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Dagger	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Animals used in warfare Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Elephant	Absent	41 CE 226 CE
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Donkey	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Dog	Absent Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Camel	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Armor Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Shield	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Scaled Armor	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Plate Armor	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Limb Protection	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Laminar Armor	Present Inferred	41 CE 226 CE
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Helmet	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Chainmail	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Breastplate	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Naval technology Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	41 CE 226 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	41 CE 226 CE
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Human Sacrifice Parthian Empire II (iq_parthian_emp_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More