Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I

Moscow was the largest city in terms of population

1638 numbers ^[1]

[1]: И.С Беляев, Росписной список города Москвы 1638 года (Москва: Типография Императорского Московского Университета, 1911). Zotero link: VFVHDC84

The ascension of the Romanov dynasty in 1613 marked a period of recovery and territorial expansion. Under Tsars like Michael Romanov and his successors, Russia expanded eastward into Siberia, securing territories from various indigenous peoples and rival states.

Conquest of Siberia: Throughout the 17th century, Russia’s conquest of Siberia was a major factor in its territorial expansion. This extended Russia’s domain across northern Asia to the Pacific Ocean.

Wars and Treaties: Russia’s wars with Poland, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire in the late 17th and early 18th centuries led to significant territorial gains. Key treaties like the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 and the Treaty of Kardis in 1661 defined Russia’s western borders with Sweden. The Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667 and the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686 with Poland-Lithuania gave Russia control of territories in Eastern Europe, including parts of Ukraine.

Peter the Great’s Reign (1682-1725): Under Peter the Great, Russia expanded its territory significantly. The Great Northern War (1700-1721) against Sweden led to Russia gaining access to the Baltic Sea and establishing Saint Petersburg in 1703. This was a crucial territorial and strategic gain for Russia. ^{[1] [2]}

[1]: Rein Taagepera, “Size and Duration of Empires: Systematics of Size,” Social Science Research 7, no. 2 (June 1, 1978). Zotero link: EI7GRCPX

[2]: “Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection - UT Library Online,”. Zotero link: 96J9SE2U

In 1678, a census in Russia recorded approximately 950,000 households. Population estimates based on this census range between 10.5 and 11.5 million. These estimates vary depending on the assumed average number of individuals per household and the proportion of the population that may have been uncounted in the census. ^[1]





1720 : includes new Baltic & Polish territories ^[2]

[1]: N. A. Gorskai︠a︡, Istoricheskai︠a︡ Demografii︠a︡ Rossii Ėpokhi Feodalizma: Itogi i Problemy Izuchenii︠a︡ (Moskva: Nauka, 1994). Zotero link: 93M4X65C

[2]: Brian Catchpole, A Map History of Russia (London: Heinemann Educational, 1974). Zotero link: FLZC48SZ

Tobolsk became an important administrative center for Siberia after it was annexed by Russia in the late 16th century. it was one of the furthest cities from Moscow, the capital of Russia until 1712. ^[1]

[1]: “Расстояние Москва – Тобольск: 2359 Км.” Zotero link: WFKZD4I6

17th Century: Clerical education was informal and unsystematic, with many priests supplementing their income through other means like farming.

18th Century (Starting with Peter the Great, ruled 1682–1725): The clergy started receiving more systematic and formal training. They became more integrated with state functions and increasingly resembled a hereditary professional estate. ^[1]

[1]: Pospielovsky, Dimitry. The Orthodox Church in the History of Russia. St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1998. Zotero link: BSA6XCTP

Peter the Great’s Military Reforms: Before Peter the Great, the Russian military largely comprised villagers and a few professional units like the Streltsy and Cossacks, often officered by foreigners. Peter initiated comprehensive reforms, introducing a standing army in 1699. He modernized the army, enforcing uniform training for all soldiers and creating elite Guards regiments. By 1725, the Russian army had expanded to 130,000 men, significantly professionalizing its ranks​​. ^[1]

[1]: Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham, eds., The Military History of Tsarist Russia (New York, NY: Palgrave, 2002). Zotero link: 28NSCAIL

Peter the Great’s Reforms: The reign of Peter the Great (1672-1725) was a pivotal period for the Russian bureaucracy. He worked to modernize the Russian state along European lines, creating a European-style army, navy, and bureaucracy. His reforms included efforts to pay officials in money rather than allowing them to live off the land, a practice he banned in 1714. However, this was only partially successful, and in practice, only officials in Moscow and St. Petersburg were paid in this manner. ^[1]

[1]: Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. 2nd ed, Penguin Books, 1995. Zotero link: LEIXLKAP

Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, further shaped the Russian bureaucracy after seizing power in 1762. She made changes to the promotion system within the bureaucracy, decreeing in 1764 and 1767 that bureaucrats would receive automatic promotions after seven years in one rank, regardless of office or merit. Catherine also aligned ecclesiastic provinces with administrative boundaries, thus increasing the bureaucracy’s control over the church​​. ^[1]

[1]: Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. 2nd ed, Penguin Books, 1995. Zotero link: LEIXLKAP

Early 17th Century (Time of Troubles): In the early 17th century, during the Time of Troubles, Russia’s administrative system was relatively less developed. The bureaucracy was not highly specialized, and many officials were members of the nobility who held multiple roles, including military duties.

Reforms in the 17th Century: Throughout the 17th century, especially under the reign of Tsar Alexis Mikhailovich (1645-1676), there were efforts to centralize and streamline the Russian government. This period saw an increase in the number of government departments (prikazy), indicating a move towards more specialized administrative roles. However, it’s important to note that many of these roles were still not entirely specialized, and the concept of a full-time, professional bureaucrat was still developing.

Peter the Great’s Reforms: The most significant changes came with Peter the Great (1682-1725), who implemented widespread reforms across Russian society, including the government. He established a more modern, bureaucratic state with a clearer division of labor and the creation of new government bodies. Peter’s reforms marked the beginning of the true professionalization of the Russian bureaucracy, with officials dedicated solely to administrative tasks. ^[1]

[1]: Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. 2nd ed, Penguin Books, 1995. Zotero link: LEIXLKAP

Peter the Great introduced the Table of Ranks in 1722, which was a formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia. This system was designed to re-organize the foundations of the Russian nobility and was based on service to the Tsar rather than hereditary status. While all grades in the Table of Ranks were theoretically open by merit, and promotion required qualification for the next rank, this system was not based on a formal examination process​​​​.

Catherine the Great, who came to power in 1762, made changes to the Table of Ranks that further moved away from meritocratic principles. In 1767, she instituted automatic promotions up the 14 ranks after seven years, regardless of position or merit, thus populating the bureaucracy with time servers rather than merit-based appointees​. ^[1]

[1]: Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. 2nd ed, Penguin Books, 1995. Zotero link: LEIXLKAP

Prior to the judicial reforms of 1864, the legal profession in the Russian Empire was not as formally structured or professionalized as it later became.
The administration of justice was primarily carried out by local authorities and the nobility, with a less distinct separation between the roles of administrators and legal professionals. ^[1]

[1]: Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015). Zotero link: 6F93JTAI

The Russian judicial system until 1864 was based on "Estates-of-the-realm" courts serving different social estates.
This system, largely intact since Catherine II’s reign, lacked modern professional judges. ^[1]

[1]: Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015). Zotero link: 6F93JTAI

The Sudebnik of 1550 was a legal code enacted by Tsar Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) that played a significant role in the legal development of the Tsardom of Russia. This code was part of Ivan IV’s efforts to reform and centralize the Russian government and judicial system. ^[1]


The Sobornoe Ulozhenie (Соборное уложение) was a comprehensive legal code enacted during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the first consolidated set of laws in Russia and remained in effect until the modernization reforms of the 19th century. ^[2]

[1]: “The Code of Law (the Sudebnik) of 1550,” Presidential Library, https://www.prlib.ru/en/section/685466. Zotero link: KSXXKUNK

[2]: Gregory Freeze, Russia: A History (Oxford University Press, 1998). Zotero link: 4PTARV3W

Gostiny Dvor, one of the world’s oldest shopping arcades, is a historic market complex in the heart of Saint Petersburg. Its construction started in the 18th century and continued into the 19th century.
The first plan for a Gostiny Dvor (effectively, a large scale trading market) on Nevsky Prospect was developed in the late 1750s by the architect A. Rinaldi (never carried out). In 1757, the project for a two-storied Gostiny Dvor, was developed by the architect F. Rastrelli, this was approved and the construction started. ^[1]


In Moscow, the Red Square was a massive expanse of assorted market stalls and self-made wooden huts, which were replaced by a building complex at the end of the 18th century. ^[2]

[1]: “Saint Petersburg Encyclopaedia.” Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.encspb.ru/object/2804002210?lc=en. Zotero link: 8WJQBXTT

[2]: “Market on Red Square,” accessed January 3, 2024, https://bridgetomoscow.com/time-gap-market-on-red-square. Zotero link: U52MXJ75

Many Russian Orthodox monasteries, which date back to well before the establishment of the Russian Empire in the 18th century, operated their own granaries. These granaries were essential for storing surplus grain and other foodstuffs, not only for the monks’ use but also for the surrounding communities, especially during times of famine or hardship. ^[1]

[1]: Seppel, Marten. “Communal Granaries in the Russian Empire: Conception, Implementation, and Failures in the Baltic Provinces.” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 67, no. 2 (2019) Zotero link: XGXRT789

Moscow water pipes out of lead were dated by the 15th century. Stone water pipe was created in
the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in the XVI century, where water flowed into the monastery pipes. Then,
in one of the Solovetsky Monastery wells, water was supplied by gravity from a dug up Holy Lake
through underground pipe, then it was lifted using a hand pump (pump) and distributed through gutters
to neighboring rooms - to the kitchen and to the brewery. There was a large water economy in the
Solovetsky Monastery. ^[1]

[1]: E. Ketova and J. Nizhegorodtseva, “Main Factors of Water Supply Systems Industrialization in Russia,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 953, no. 1 (November 2020). Zotero link: RCBB958J

The traditional Russian "banya" or bathhouse. These communal bathhouses played a significant role in Russian society.

The key aspects of a traditional Russian banya are:

Social Gathering Space: Banyas were not just places for washing; they were significant social centers where people of all classes mingled. It was common for villagers to gather in the banya to relax, discuss community matters, and engage in social activities.

Health and Hygiene: Banyas were critical for the hygiene and health of the population, particularly in times when private bathing facilities were rare.

Cultural Importance: The banya has deep cultural roots in Russian tradition, often associated with various rituals and customs. ^[1]

[1]: “История Сандунов,” accessed December 13, 2023, https://msk.sanduny.ru/ru/about/history. Zotero link: PPUFD8ZV

Saint Basil’s Cathedral: Officially known as the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos on the Moat, this iconic church is located in the Red Square in Moscow. It was built from 1555 to 1561 on orders from Ivan the Terrible and is one of the most recognizable symbols of Russia. ^[1]

[1]: “Покровский Собор,” accessed December 13, 2023, https://en.shm.ru/museum/hvb/. Zotero link: KC49NTK6

Slavic Greek Latin Academy: Founded in Moscow in 1687, this was one of the earliest attempts at higher education in Russia. It was established by the Greek Lichud brothers and was initially more similar to a theological seminary with a strong focus on religious education, although it did include the study of Greek and Latin languages and some secular subjects. This academy can be seen as a precursor to the establishment of modern universities in Russia. ^[1]

The Russian Academy of Sciences, established in St. Petersburg in 1724 by Peter the Great, was a pivotal institution in the advancement of science and education in Russia. Its creation marked a significant step in Peter’s efforts to modernize and westernize Russia. The Academy attracted prominent European scientists and intellectuals and became a center for scientific research and thought. It played a crucial role in introducing new scientific ideas and methods to Russia and contributed significantly to the development of Russian science and higher education. ^[2]

[1]: История Московской славяно-греко-латинской академии, n.d., accessed January 3, 2024, https://www.prlib.ru/item/416828. Zotero link: H38QQNJT

[2]: “Зарождение традиций,” Российская академия наук, accessed January 3, 2024, https://new.ras.ru/academy/ob-akademii/300-let-istorii/zarozhdenie-traditsiy/. Zotero link: FN5CK76D

Early Russian entertainment was often intertwined with religious, communal, or courtly life rather than housed in dedicated entertainment buildings as understood in later periods.



The first public theater in Russia was founded in Moscow in 1672. This theater, established during the reign of Tsar Alexis of Russia, marks a significant development in the cultural history of Russia, reflecting the early stages of Western influence on Russian arts and entertainment. ^[1]

[1]: Erik Amburger, “Die Mitwirkenden Bei Der Moskauer Aufführung Des „Artaxerxes“ Am 17. Oktober 1672,” Zeitschrift für Slavische Philologie 25, no. 2 (1956): 304–309. Zotero link: 36KQ3PC7

The road network in Russia during this period was primarily used for postal services and other essential transportation needs. However, the quality of these roads was generally poor.

One of the earliest examples of a significant road in the Russian Empire is the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow. ^[1]

[1]: Tracy Nichols Busch, “Connecting an Empire: Eighteenth-Century Russian Roads, from Peter to Catherine,” The Journal of Transport History 29, no. 2 (2008). Zotero link: RQI7IDGI

The Archangel Port (Arkhangelsk), located on the White Sea, is one of the oldest Russian ports, significant for its role as Russia’s primary sea port prior to the establishment of Saint Petersburg. Historically, it served as Russia’s only window to Western Europe for trade, especially during the 16th and 17th centuries. Archangel was pivotal in facilitating trade in timber, fur, and other goods, connecting Russia with markets in England and other European countries. With the founding of Saint Petersburg in the early 18th century, the port’s prominence declined, but it remained an important regional trade hub. ^[1]

[1]: “История,” АМТП, accessed December 14, 2023, https://ascp.ru/history/. Zotero link: 8RV3MW35

The development of canals in Russia transitioned significantly during the early 18th century under Peter the Great. Prior to this period, Russia primarily relied on its natural river systems for transportation and trade, with rivers interconnected by simple boat portages. Peter the Great’s exposure to the canal systems in Holland inspired him to initiate the construction of engineered waterways in Russia. This marked a pivotal shift from reliance on natural waterways to the systematic building of canals, enhancing trade, transportation, and military logistics within the Russian Empire. ^[1]



The first canal was a project to link the Don with the Oka and the Volga. A system of canals was built connecting the Volga and the Neva. This so-called Vyshny Volodsky system started at the city of Tver (now Kalinin) on the Volga and opened in 1706. ^[2]

[1]: Stefan T. Possony, “European Russia’s Inland Waterways - Past, Present, and Future,” U.S Naval Institute Proceedings, https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1947/august/european-russias-inland-waterways-past-present-and-future. Zotero link: VKJJBJ5B

[2]: Н. П. ИнфоРост, “ГПИБ | Николаев А. С. Краткий Исторический Очерк Развития Водяных и Сухопутных Сообщений Торговых Портов в России : [В 3-х ч.]. - СПб., 1900. Zotero link: 24FNQ62E

Great Stone Bridge in Moscow: Also known as the Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, it was originally a wooden bridge built in the 17th century over the Moskva River. In the early 18th century, during the reign of Peter the Great, it was reconstructed in stone, reflecting the era’s advancements in bridge construction. ^[1]

[1]: S. O. Shmidt, M. I. Andreev, and V. M. Karev, eds., Moskva: Ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡, Biblioteka Istorii︠a︡ Moskvy s drevneĭshikh vremen do nashikh dneĭ (Moskva: Nauchnoe izd-vo “Bolʹshai︠a︡ rossiĭskai︠a︡ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡,” 1997). Zotero link: 28L5IKZJ

In the 16th century, Ivan IV declared the prospecting and mining of ores a state monopoly and in 1567-1568 he sent an expedition to search for ores. He also allocated extensive lands to Y. A. Stroganov in the Kama region with permission to use iron ores. ^[1]

By the 1730s the southeast Urals was the largest mining and metallurgical region of the Russian Empire.
Mining operations in Siberia proper also began in the early eighteenth century, first in the northern foothills of the Altai Mountains (iron, copper, lead, zinc) and the silver mines near Nerchinsk east of Lake Baikal. Then gold was discovered in the Yenisey River basin in 1838-39, starting the Siberian gold rush. Up to 1876 the Yenisey basin had the largest goldfields in the empire, producing more than 20 percent of Russia’s gold. After that year, the Lena River goldfields predominated, by 1908 employing some thirty thousand people. ^[2]

[1]: Veniamin Vasilʹevič Alekseev and Dmitrij Vasilʹevič Gavrilov, Metallurgija Urala s drevnejšich vremen do našich dnej (Moskva: Nauka, 2008). Zotero link: HBTSSX85

[2]: “Siberian Mining | Development | Articles and Essays | Meeting of Frontiers | Digital Collections | Library of Congress,” web page, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, accessed January 8, 2024, https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/development/siberian-mining/. Zotero link: 3BHHBZNM

Astrakhan: Located near the Caspian Sea, Astrakhan was a significant trading emporium, especially for trade with Persia and Central Asia. It was a key center for the exchange of goods like silk, furs, and grains.

Arkhangelsk (Archangel): Situated in the north on the White Sea, Arkhangelsk was one of the earliest and most important trading ports in Russia before the establishment of Saint Petersburg. It was crucial for trade with Western Europe, particularly England and the Netherlands.

Nizhny Novgorod: Located at the confluence of the Volga and Oka rivers, Nizhny Novgorod was famous for its fairs and served as a major trading hub connecting the vast regions of Siberia and Central Asia with the European part of Russia.

Odessa: On the Black Sea coast, Odessa emerged as a vital trading port in the late 18th century. It became a major gateway for the export of grains and other agricultural products from the fertile regions of Ukraine and southern Russia.

Riga and Tallinn: In the Baltic region, these cities were significant trading emporia, facilitating trade with Northern and Western Europe. ^[1]

[1]: Nancy Shields Kollmann, The Russian Empire 1450-1801 (Oxford University Press, 2017) Zotero link: XQKZ97AS

Saint Basil’s Cathedral: Officially known as the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos on the Moat, this iconic church is located in the Red Square in Moscow. It was built from 1555 to 1561 on orders from Ivan the Terrible and is one of the most recognizable symbols of Russia. ^[1]

[1]: “Покровский Собор,” accessed December 13, 2023, https://en.shm.ru/museum/hvb/. Zotero link: KC49NTK6

In the Russian Empire, cemeteries were not just places of burial but also reflected the religious, cultural, and social aspects of Russian society. They varied greatly in size, design, and significance, with some becoming prominent historical and cultural sites.




Novodevichy Cemetery (Moscow) ^[1]

[1]: “Новодевичье Кладбище .. Онлайн Тур По Некрополю.” Accessed December 18, 2023. https://novodevichye.com/. Zotero link: XRK5X7XZ

Cyrillic Script: Originally developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century, the Cyrillic script was brought to Russia through the spread of Christianity. It became the foundation of the written language in the Russian Empire.. ^[1]

[1]: “Cyrillic Alphabet | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica,” last modified October 11, 2023, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cyrillic-alphabet. Zotero link: 5PGC4769

Iconography and Symbolism: Religious and cultural icons, paintings, and symbols often conveyed stories, teachings, and historical events. Churches and religious buildings, for example, were adorned with iconography that told stories from religious texts. ^[1]

[1]: Dara Vandor, “A Brief History of Russian Icons,” Waddingtons.Ca, last modified February 12, 2021, accessed January 13, 2024, https://www.waddingtons.ca/a-brief-history-of-russian-icons/. Zotero link: A9KGIB4S

Early 17th Century (1615-1700): In the early part of this period, scientific literature in Russia was quite limited. The country was largely isolated from the scientific advancements occurring in Western Europe. Most scholarly works were religious or philosophical in nature, and there was minimal engagement with the scientific ideas that were developing in Western Europe during the Renaissance and early Enlightenment.

Reign of Peter the Great (1682-1725): A significant change occurred during the reign of Peter the Great. Peter’s extensive efforts to modernize and Westernize Russia had a profound impact on the sciences. He founded the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1724, marking the beginning of a systematic approach to scientific research and literature in Russia. This period saw an influx of European scientists and the introduction of contemporary scientific ideas from Western Europe. ^[1]

For example works by:

Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765): Lomonosov was a polymath, scientist, and writer who made significant contributions to literature, education, and science, particularly in chemistry and physics. He wrote numerous scientific works and was instrumental in the establishment of Moscow State University. ^[2]



Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686–1750): Tatishchev was a prominent Russian statesman and historian who is often considered the father of Russian historiography. He conducted geographical and ethnographic studies and wrote a comprehensive history of Russia. ^[3]

[1]: Erin M. Fleener, “Peter the Great as a Constructive Revolutionary,” 2007 Zotero link: 78TADDRP

[2]: “Научное Наследие — Электронная Библиотека ГНПБУ.” Accessed December 18, 2023. http://elib.gnpbu.ru/sections/0100/lomonosov/. Zotero link: 43PKCEWE

[3]: “Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev | Russian Geographer, Scientist & Statesman | Britannica". Zotero link: 8JIP3N56

The primary sacred text in the Russian Orthodox tradition was the Bible, comprising the Old and New Testaments. This also included texts specific to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, such as the Septuagint version of the Old Testament and the Orthodox Liturgical texts.

^[1]

[1]: Neil Kent, A Concise History of the Russian Orthodox Church (Washington: Academica Press, 2021). Zotero link: YC6JFSXF

Russian Orthodox Religious Literature:

Patristic Texts: These are writings by the Church Fathers, which hold significant theological and spiritual value in the Orthodox tradition. They include works by early Christian theologians such as St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great.

Hagiographies: Lives of saints, known as hagiographies, were popular in the Russian Orthodox Church. These texts, which detail the lives and miracles of saints, played a vital role in religious education and devotion.

Liturgical Texts: These include various service books like the Euchologion (trebnyk), Octoechos, and the Horologion, containing prayers, hymns, and liturgical instructions.
Paterikon: A collection of stories and sayings from the Desert Fathers and other monastic figures, the Paterikon was widely read for spiritual edification. ^[1]

[1]: Neil Kent, A Concise History of the Russian Orthodox Church (Washington: Academica Press, 2021). Zotero link: YC6JFSXF

"Domostroi" : A comprehensive guide to household management, religious life, and family ethics. ^[1]

[1]: “Домострой,” accessed December 18, 2023, https://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/domostr.htm. Zotero link: KEUFJJ2S

Boyar Dumas Records: The Boyar Duma, a council of nobles advising the Tsar, kept records of their proceedings and decisions. These included lists of attendees, decisions made, and other administrative details. ^[1]

[1]: Robert O. Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors: The Boyar Elite in Russia, 1613-1689 (Princeton University Press, 1983) Zotero link: 8ZXZMT6C

The Russian Primary Chronicle, medieval Kievan Rus historical work that gives a detailed account of the early history of the eastern Slavs to the second decade of the 12th century. ^[1]

[1]: “The Russian Primary Chronicle | Medieval History, Kievan Rus & Primary Source | Britannica,” Zotero link: GI38G47I

The Russian Empire used the Julian calendar. ^[1]

[1]: “Russian Calendar History,” accessed November 24, 2023, https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/Russia.html. Zotero link: 6ISBAAIB

The first instance of paper currency in Russia was introduced during the reign of Peter the Great. The Assignation Ruble was the first paper currency of the Russian Empire, introduced in 1769. ^[1]

[1]: Pick, Albert. Standard Catalog of World Paper Money. 2: General Issues: 1368-1960 / George S. Cuhaj, Editor. Edited by George S. Cuhaj. 13. ed. Iola, Wisc: Krause, 2010. Zotero link: 4QMQVGF7

Russian coinage in the early 17th century was primarily based on silver and copper coins. The most common silver coin was the "kopeck," and larger denominations were based on multiples of the kopeck. Previous to that the most used currency was a small silver coin called denga. ^[1]

[1]: Иван Георгиевич Спасский, Русская Монетная Система: Историко-Нумизматический Очерк (Аврора, 1970). Zotero link: EVFABBP4

Foreign coins often entered Russia through extensive trade networks. Russia’s trade with European countries, as well as with Asian nations, would have brought various foreign currencies into circulation within its borders. ^[1]

[1]: Иван Георгиевич Спасский, Русская Монетная Система: Историко-Нумизматический Очерк (Аврора, 1970). Zotero link: EVFABBP4

Fur Trade: Significant fur trading activities in Siberia and the Ural regions, where hunting was a major source of livelihood. Trading centers for skins were regular features, with Yakutsk in eastern Siberia being a notable market. An annual fair in Irbit in the Urals was dedicated entirely to bartering in animal skins, such as sables and ermines, hunted by various indigenous groups like the Ostiaks, Tatars, and Soiols​​. ^[1]

[1]: Reynolds, E. K. “The Economic Resources of the Russian Empire.” Geographical Review 1, no. 4 (1916): 249–265. Accessed December 19, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/207297. Zotero link: TGHSB93W