Home Region: North China (East Asia)

Late Qing

1796 CE 1912 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 cn_qing_dyn_2 / CnQingL

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

1644 CE 1796 CE Early Qing (cn_qing_dyn_1) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity:

No Polity found. Add one here.

General Description

The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch’ing Dynasty) was China’s last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji’s death. ^[1] In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. ^[2]
The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. ^[1] Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. ^[3] The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.
We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. ^[4] The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.
From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. ^[5] In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. ^[6] A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). ^[6]
At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China’s economy was drained of silver ^[7] and the value of copper coins depreciated. ^[6] The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. ^[6] The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. ^[6] The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. ^[6]
The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. ^[6] By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. ^[6] A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.
In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. ^[8] The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. ^[8] However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.
Population and political organization
The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. ^[9] The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. ^[6] Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. ^[6]
The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. ^[10] However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.

[1]: (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd.

[2]: (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd.

[3]: (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd.

[4]: (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[5]: (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. China’s Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[6]: (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. ’Qing Period Event History’. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017.

[7]: (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. China’s Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[8]: (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. China’s Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[9]: (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. The Rise and Fall of China’s Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

[10]: (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. China’s Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

6 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

3 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

2 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

2 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

6 Power Transition

Instability Events

59 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2) was in:
(1796 CE 1912 CE)	Orkhon Valley / Middle Yellow River Valley

Home NGA: Middle Yellow River Valley

General Variables

Identity and Location Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	50 S	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Original Name	Late Qing	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Capital	Beijing	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Qing dynasty	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Qīng Cháo	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Ch'ing Ch'ao	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Empire of the Great Qing	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Great Qing	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Alternative Name	Manchu dynasty	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Temporal Bounds Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	1850 CE
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Duration	[1796 CE ➜ 1912 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---]	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Supracultural Entity	China	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Republic of China	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	11,300,000 km²	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Preceding Entity 1644 CE 1796 CE	Early Qing (cn_qing_dyn_1) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Language Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Sino-Tibetan	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Language	Chinese	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Language	Manchu language	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Religion Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	890,892 people	1796 CE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	1,039,360 people	1882 CE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	1,104,372 people	1910 CE
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Polity Territory	11,300,000 km²	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Polity Population	295,000,000 people	1800 CE
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Polity Population	[334,000,000 to 348,000,000] people	1900 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	7	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Religious Level	3	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Military Level	[8 to 11]	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Administrative Level	7	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Professions Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Merit Promotion	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Examination System	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Law Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Judge	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Court	Absent Inferred	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Port	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Canal	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Bridge	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Information / Writing System Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Script	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Philosophy	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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History	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Fiction	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Calendar	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Information / Money Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Paper Currency	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Article	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Information / Postal System Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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General Postal Service	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Courier	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Information / Measurement System Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Modern Fortification	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moat	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Ditch	Present Inferred	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Long Wall	[6,259 to 6,700] km	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Military use of Metals Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Iron	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Copper	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Bronze	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Projectiles Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent Inferred	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Sling	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Self Bow	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Javelin	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Atlatl	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Handheld weapons Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Sword	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Spear	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Polearm	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Dagger	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Animals used in warfare Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Elephant	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Donkey	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Dog	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Camel	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Armor Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Shield	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Plate Armor	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Limb Protection	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Helmet	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Chainmail	Unknown Suspected	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Breastplate	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Naval technology Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	1796 CE 1912 CE
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Human Sacrifice Late Qing (cn_qing_dyn_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More