Home Region: Levant (Southwest Asia)

Yisrael

1030 BCE 722 BCE

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EQ 2020 il_yisrael / IlYisrl

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General Description

_Short description_
The ancient kingdom of Israel 1030-722 CE was a monarchy established by Israelite people that was eventually conquered by the Assyrian Empire. Initially a monarchic union with Judah, around 930 BCE the Northern Kingdom (Israel) gained autonomy. In the 9th century Israel entered an anti-Assyria coalition but from Jehu (841 BCE) paid them tribute and thereafter were frequently a vassal of the Mesopotamian empire. After a revolt against Assyria in 727 CE the Assyrians ended the polity sending many of its inhabitants into exile.
The century authorities ruled through administrative centers and fortresses sites that had "public buildings and ... large open spaces." ^[1] Local administration may have been through tribal elders who may have been responsible for tax collection. Our image of a centralized monarchy (for some of or the whole of the period) might be tempered by the ideas of Pfoh (2008) who has argued Israel was actually a "patronage kingdom" in which a monarchy did not control a truly unitary state. Nevertheless, Israel possessed a standing army with a strong chariot corps, and used weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.
At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria’s first attempt to conquer the Levant.
At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil. In the eighth century BCE the population likely exceeded well over a quarter of a million people, a vast increase on the less than 100,000 people estimated for the earliest times.

_Oren’s long description_
How the Kingdom of Israel began is a matter of dispute. The Bible depicts it as originally being the greater part of the old Israelite tribal confederation, and then a part of the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon (c. 1030 BCE)—before seceding during the rule of Rehaboam, and forming its own state. This narrative is more or less accepted by some archaeologists such as Mazar, while others such as Finkelstein assert that Israel actually emerged first from a process of gradual state formation, with the southern kingdom of Judah emerging later. ^[2]
Regardless, the two kingdoms always had close interactions, and the northern kingdom of Israel was almost always the dominant one. At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria’s first attempt to conquer the Levant. Israel featured a standing army with a strong chariot corps, with weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.
However, starting with the assassination of the Omrid king Jehoram by Jehu (c. 841 BCE), Israel’s fortunes waned; and it spent the rest of its existence as the tributary of either Aram or Assyria, depending on which of the two empires were ascendent. Even when the economy of Israel flourished during particular periods of the next century (as attested to by the greater incidence of luxury goods in archaeological finds), Israel was still subject to the depredations of foreign powers, being invaded several times. Ultimately, following an ill-fated rebellion against Assyria, the polity of Israel was dissolved (c. 722 BCE), its people exiled, and the land turned into an Assyrian province.
Israelite politics were marked with instability. In contrast to the kingdom of Judah, which featured a single ruling dynasty that traced its beginnings to David, Israelite kings frequently met violent ends. These would typically be at the hands of rebellious military commanders who would seize the throne, though such rebels ran the risk of being deposed themselves in short order. Zimri, one rebel captain, would rule for only a single week before losing the support of the army to rival captain Omri, founder of the Omrid Dynasty.
At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil.
A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view.
Worse, scholars of this particular polity often operate with ideological motives - either to prove the essential historicity of the Bible, or to disprove it—which can distort their claims. Israel Finkelstein, for example, once claimed that King David never existed, before having to revise his view after the discovery of the Tel Dan Stela. ^[2] (He now believes, as National Geographic puts it, that David was "a raggedy upstart akin to Pancho Villa.") His "Low Chronology" seems to have been motivated by the attempt to disprove the early existence of the United Monarchy, and the weight of the evidence now contradicts the chronology (while still inconclusive on the matter of the United Monarchy). ^[3] In general, it seems that many archaeologists treat the absence of evidence as evidence of absence—risky to do, considering that new finds are unearthed practically every month.
In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened. As can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a constant danger with motivated archaeologists.

[1]: (Finkelstein 2013, 104)Israel Finkelstein. 2013. The Forgotten Kingdom: The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. Atlanta, GA. Available online here.

[2]: Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007).

[3]: Mazar (2005)

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

4 Capital

8 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

5 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

3 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

2 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

2 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

2 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Yisrael (il_yisrael) was in:
(1030 BCE 722 BCE)	Galilee

Home NGA: Galilee

General Variables

Identity and Location Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	36 S Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Original Name	Yisrael Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Capital	Shechem Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Capital	Samaria Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Capital	Jerusalem Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Capital	Tirzah Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Israel Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Northern Kingdom Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Northern Kingdom of Israel Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Bit Humri Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	House of Omri Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Shomron Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Samaria Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Alternative Name	Ephraim Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	855 BCE Expert
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Duration	[1030 BCE ➜ 722 BCE] Expert
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Political and Cultural Relations Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---] Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	none Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---] Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	vassalage to [---] Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	personal union with [---] Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Israelite Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Neo-Assyrian Empire Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[10,000 to 20,000] km² Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	population migration Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Preceding Entity	population migration; Ancient Phoenicia [population replacement] Update here Expert
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Language Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Afro-Asiatic Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Language	Hebrew Expert	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Religion Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[15,000 to 20,000] people	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Polity Territory	[8,000 to 15,000] km²	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Polity Population	[40,000 to 50,000] people	1030 BCE 1000 BCE
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Polity Population	[50,000 to 300,000] people	900 BCE
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Polity Population	[300,000 to 400,000] people	800 BCE 722 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	7	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Religious Level	2	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Military Level	[6 to 8]	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Administrative Level	-	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Professions Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Examination System	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Law Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Judge	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Absent Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Court	Unknown Suspected	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Irrigation System	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Port	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Canal	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Bridge	Absent Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Information / Writing System Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Script	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Mnemonic Device	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Sacred Text	Present Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Sacred Text	Absent Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Religious Literature	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Practical Literature	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Philosophy	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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History	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Fiction	Present Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Fiction	Absent Disputed	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Calendar	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Information / Money Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Precious Metal	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Article	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Information / Postal System Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Courier	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Moat	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Ditch	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Long Wall	absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Military use of Metals Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Iron	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Copper	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Bronze	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Projectiles Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Sling	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Self Bow	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Javelin	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Handheld weapons Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Unknown Suspected	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Sword	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Spear	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Polearm	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Dagger	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Battle Axe	Unknown Suspected	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Elephant	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Donkey	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Dog	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Camel	Unknown	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Armor Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Shield	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Plate Armor	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Limb Protection	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present Inferred	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Helmet	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Chainmail	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Breastplate	Present	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Naval technology Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Absent	1030 BCE 722 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Human Sacrifice Yisrael (il_yisrael)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More