Ottoman Empire I

  General Description   During the fifteenth century the Ottomans reconstructed the state following the damaging civil war (which ended 1412 CE) and the devastating Mongol invasion under Timur (in 1402 CE). The period ends with the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which began a "stronger Islamisation of the Empire." ^[1]
Ottoman government had an elaborate set of institutions but was ultimately highly autocratic, run out of the court of the Sultan ^[2] who would frequently execute men of high rank in rituals of death that "symbolised the absolute power of the sultan within his own household, and the abject status of even his most powerful counsellors." ^[3] The court often "by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations" and Colin Imber notes that there was an informal aspect to policy making that depended a great deal on the personality of the Sultan "and the individuals or factions who had his ear." ^[4]
The main institution of government was the Imperial Council (divan) which was under the presidency of the Grand Vizier. ^[4] In the regions provinces were run by governors (beylerbeyi). ^[5] The Ottoman army was financed by land grants: between 1400-1590 CE army officers were assigned timar holdings from which they could raise revenue as a form of salary. Numbering 27,500 in 1527 CE they "formed the most important element in the Ottoman army." ^{[6] [7]}
At this time the Ottoman Empire was very heterogeneous in language and culture and while Islam predominated as the state religion the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained some influence within the Ottoman government and served large concentrations of Christians. After their expulsion from Spain in 1492 CE there were also many Jews, in addition to Maronites and Druzes. ^[8] After the final conquest of Byzantine Constantinople in 1453 CE, the city became the Ottoman capital, now called Istanbul, and boomed in size again from about 50,000 to perhaps as many as 400,000 residents.

[1]: Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.

[2]: (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.

[4]: (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.

[5]: (Imber 2002, 177-178) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.

[6]: (Imber 2002, 256-257) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.

[7]: (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[8]: (Imber 2002, 1-2) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.