Home Region: Northeast Africa (Africa)

Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period

404 BCE 342 BCE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 eg_inter_occupation / EgIntOc

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

550 BCE 331 BCE Achaemenid Empire (ir_achaemenid_emp) [secession]

Succeeding Entity:

No Polity found. Add one here.

General Description

The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) ^[1] ^[2] refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt’s external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the ’Late Period’ of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. ^[3]
The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. ^[4] Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, ^[5] his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. ^[6]
Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. ^[6] Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. ^[1]
Population and political organization
The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. ^[2] The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. ^[7] One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of ’First Generalissimo of His Majesty’. ^[8] The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. ^[9]
There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. ^[10] It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.
The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. ^[11] Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, ^[12] perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. ^[13] Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. ^[14]
Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. ^[15]
A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the qanat water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. ^[16] Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. ^[16] In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. ^[17]

[1]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2]: (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. ’The Late Period (664-332 BC)’, in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[4]: (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[5]: (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[6]: (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[7]: (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[8]: (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[9]: (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[10]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[11]: (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. ’Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 33 (1): 1-34.

[12]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[13]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[14]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[15]: (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. ’Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt’. Mediterranean Historical Review 18 (1): 1-31.

[16]: (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[17]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

2 Capital

3 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

2 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

1 Entertainment Building

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events

7 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation) was in:
(404 BCE 343 BCE)	Upper Egypt

Home NGA: Upper Egypt

General Variables

Identity and Location Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	36 R	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Original Name	Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Capital	Memphis	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Capital	Mendes	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Alternative Name	Inter-Occupation Dynasties	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Alternative Name	28th	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Alternative Name	29th and 30th Dynasties	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[404 BCE ➜ 342 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---]	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Egypt	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Achaemenid Empire	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[250,000 to 500,000] km²	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	secession	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Preceding Entity 550 BCE 331 BCE	Achaemenid Empire (ir_achaemenid_emp) [secession]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Language Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Afro-Asiatic	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Language	Demotic	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Religion Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Egyptian Religions	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[50,000 to 100,000] people	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Polity Territory	[500,000 to 600,000] km²	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Polity Population	[2,500,000 to 3,000,000] people	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	4	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Religious Level	[2 to 3]	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Military Level	[5 to 9]	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Administrative Level	5	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Professions Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Law Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Judge	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Court	Present Disputed	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Court	Absent Disputed	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Irrigation System	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Entertainment Building	Uncoded Undecided	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Port	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Canal	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Bridge	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Information / Writing System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Script	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Sacred Text	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Religious Literature	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Practical Literature	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Philosophy	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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History	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Fiction	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Calendar	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Information / Money Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Precious Metal	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Article	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Information / Postal System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Courier	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Long Wall	absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Military use of Metals Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Iron	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Copper	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Bronze	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Projectiles Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Sling	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Self Bow	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Javelin	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Handheld weapons Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Sword	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Spear	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Polearm	Absent	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Dagger	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Battle Axe	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Elephant	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Donkey	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Camel	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Armor Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Shield	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Plate Armor	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Limb Protection	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Helmet	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Chainmail	Absent Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Breastplate	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Naval technology Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present Inferred	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	404 BCE 342 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More