Home Region:  Northeast Africa (Africa)

Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period

404 BCE 342 BCE
EQ 2020  eg_inter_occupation / EgIntOc
Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
550 BCE 331 BCE Achaemenid Empire (ir_achaemenid_emp)    [secession]

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.


  General Description  
The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) [1] [2] refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt’s external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the ’Late Period’ of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. [3]
The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. [4] Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, [5] his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. [6]
Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. [6] Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. [1]
Population and political organization
The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. [2] The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. [7] One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of ’First Generalissimo of His Majesty’. [8] The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. [9]
There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. [10] It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.
The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. [11] Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, [12] perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. [13] Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. [14]
Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. [15]
A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the qanat water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. [16] Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. [16] In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. [17]

[1]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2]: (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. ’The Late Period (664-332 BC)’, in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[4]: (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[5]: (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[6]: (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[7]: (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[8]: (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. ’Saites and Persians (664‒332)’, in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[9]: (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[10]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[11]: (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. ’Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 33 (1): 1-34.

[12]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[13]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[14]: (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[15]: (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. ’Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt’. Mediterranean Historical Review 18 (1): 1-31.

[16]: (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

[17]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane.

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation) was in:
 (404 BCE 343 BCE) Upper Egypt
Home NGA: Upper Egypt

General Variables
Identity and Location Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Utm Zone 36 R 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Original Name Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Capital 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Capital 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Alternative Name Inter-Occupation Dynasties 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Alternative Name 28th 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Alternative Name 29th and 30th Dynasties 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Duration
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Political and Cultural Relations Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Suprapolity Relations 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Supracultural Entity Egypt 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Succeeding Entity Achaemenid Empire 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity secession 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Preceding Entity
550 BCE 331 BCE
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Degree of Centralization unitary state 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Language Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Linguistic Family Afro-Asiatic 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Language Demotic 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Religion Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Religion Genus Egyptian Religions 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Alternate Religion Uncoded Undecided 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Population of the Largest Settlement 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Polity Territory 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Polity Population 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Settlement Hierarchy 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Religious Level 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Military Level 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Administrative Level 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Professions Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Professional Soldier 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Professional Priesthood 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Professional Military Officer 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Specialized Government Building 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Merit Promotion 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Examination System Absent Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Law Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Professional Lawyer Absent Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Judge 404 BCE  342 BCE
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404 BCE  342 BCE
Court 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Court 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Market Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Irrigation System Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Food Storage Site Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Entertainment Building 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Road Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Port 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Canal 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Bridge Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Mines or Quarry 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Information / Writing System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Written Record Present 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Script Present 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Nonwritten Record Present 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Scientific Literature 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Sacred Text 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Religious Literature 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Practical Literature 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Philosophy 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification 404 BCE  342 BCE
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History 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Fiction 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Calendar Present 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Information / Money Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Token 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Precious Metal 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Paper Currency Absent Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Indigenous Coin 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Foreign Coin 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Article 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Information / Postal System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Postal Station 404 BCE  342 BCE
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General Postal Service Absent Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Courier Present 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Wooden Palisade Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Modern Fortification Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moat Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Fortified Camp 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Earth Rampart Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Ditch Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Complex Fortification Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Long Wall absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Military use of Metals Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Steel 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Iron 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Copper 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Bronze 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Projectiles Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Tension Siege Engine Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Sling 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Self Bow 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Javelin 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Handheld Firearm Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Crossbow 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Composite Bow 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Atlatl 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Handheld weapons Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
War Club 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Sword 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Spear 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Polearm Absent 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Dagger 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Battle Axe 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Horse 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Elephant 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Donkey 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Dog Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Camel 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Armor Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Shield 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Scaled Armor 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Plate Armor 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Limb Protection 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Laminar Armor 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Helmet 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Chainmail 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Breastplate 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Naval technology Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Specialized Military Vessel Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc Present Inferred 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service Unknown Suspected 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables
Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain 404 BCE  342 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period (eg_inter_occupation)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Instability Data
Power Transitions