Bagan

Inhabitants.
"Pagan, at one time a great and flourishing capital covering over thirty-two square miles along the eastern banks of the river Irrawaddy". ^[1] This is 83 km2 or 8300 hectares. At Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants to hectare this would mean a population of 415,000-1,660,000.
"No less than 4,446,733 pagodas are mentioned as having adorned the ancient metropolis of Pagan. The same source mentions that there were no less than 4,346,733 residential quarters." Someone described these numbers as a "poetic effusion". ^[2]

[1]: (Soni 1991) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[2]: (Soni 1991, 5) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

in squared kilometers
This map has an area ~337,757 km2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom
"As observed by Dr Than Tun: It extended from Ngachaunggyan (near Bhamo) in the north to Tavoy in the south or even as far south as? Cape Salang for some time and from the Salween River in the east to the Chin Hills in the west." ^[1]
"On the basis of an inscription of A.D. 1196, Dr Than Tun observes: The Pagan monarchy held sway over an area which is roughly the same as modern Burma with the exception of Arakan in the west, the trans-Salween area in the east and the major portion of the modern Kachin state in the north." ^[1]
"According to tradition, in 1057, Aniruddha ... conquered the southern Mon center of Thaton". ^[2]

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxvi) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 121-122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

People.
McEvedy and Jones (1978) population estimates for Burma ^[1]
1,000,000: 1 CE
1,100,000: 100 CE
1,200,000: 200 CE
1,300,000: 300 CE
1,400,000: 400 CE
1,500,000: 500 CE
1,600,000: 600 CE
1,700,000: 700 CE
1,800,000: 800 CE
1,900,000: 900 CE
2,000,000: 1000 CE
2,200,000: 1100 CE
3,000,000: 1200 CE
2,800,000: 1300 CE
3,200,000: 1400 CE
4,000,000: 1500 CE

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 190) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.

People.
McEvedy and Jones (1978) population estimates for Burma ^[1]
1,000,000: 1 CE
1,100,000: 100 CE
1,200,000: 200 CE
1,300,000: 300 CE
1,400,000: 400 CE
1,500,000: 500 CE
1,600,000: 600 CE
1,700,000: 700 CE
1,800,000: 800 CE
1,900,000: 900 CE
2,000,000: 1000 CE
2,200,000: 1100 CE
3,000,000: 1200 CE
2,800,000: 1300 CE
3,200,000: 1400 CE
4,000,000: 1500 CE

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 190) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.

levels.
1. City
2. Town 3. Village 3. Hamlet "By the middle of the century references can be found to the head of a hamlet (tuik sukri), the village-president (sangrih), and the tax-assessor (kamkun), each of whom would have been involved in the proper collection of the king’s due." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

levels.
Early 12th century CE inscriptin mentions a "mahathera of Bukam [Pagan]", a "baddhasima [permanent ’thein’ or chapter-house]", "the ordained monk mahadev" and pagoda slaves. ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 127) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

levels.
"The Burmese Glass Palace Chronicle (GPC) records that Alaungsithu (113-1169/70), probably toward the end of his reign, introduced major administrative changes at Pagan. Although this source was compiled in the nineteenth century, it probably refers to an actual series of administrative actions, the significance of which is enhanced by the fact that there are no similar accounts of large-scale reforms in the GPC." ^[1]
1. King
According to Sir John Marshall: "there were many other Burmese centres or settlements around Pagan which would have had an equal chance of becoming centres themselves as they were all under the rule of local chiefs who invariably enjoyed the title of man - the King. Subsequently the man of Pagan became mankri - the great King - and was recognized as the leader of all Burmans." ^[2]
The Pagan "ruined metropolis" is notable for "The stupendous vastness of the ruins" as well as "The utter paucity of secular structures in the ruins". ^[3]
_Court government_
2. Chief Minister inferred "By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place". ^[4]
The Burmese Glass Palace Chronicle (19th century) suggests in the second half of the 12th century CE "The administrative hierarchy consisted of queens, concubines, and ministers". ^[1]
3. Secretaries Ministers had secretaries. ^[5]
2. "Treasurers of the king’s fisc." 3. Secretaries Treasurers had secretaries. ^[5]
3. Lesser Minister Tax-assessor (kamkun). ^[6] Was the kamkun a single official based at the court or a number of officials based in each region?
4. Secretaries Ministers had secretaries. ^[5]
3. Construction project manager inferred ad hoc position "The 10,000 klyap of silver would have been used to purchase supplies and pay the wages of those involved in constructing the monastery." ^[7]
4. Construction worker
3. Superintendent of salt wells "It is probable that at least some commercial activities were administered by the state. We read, for example, that in 1285 the ’king of Mian [Burma] sent his superintendent of salt wells Abilixiang, to Taigong city [Tagaung]’, indicating that salt production was at least under nominal government control." ^[8]
4.
_Regional government_
2. 3. Village-president (sangrih) 4. Head of a hamlet (tuik sukri) "Very little information is available regarding the collection of revenue or tax assessment prior to the end of the twelfth century, although there is evidence for a rudimentary administrative hierarchy. By the middle of the century references can be found to the head of a hamlet (tuik sukri), the village-president (sangrih), and the tax-assessor (kamkun), each of whom would have been involved in the proper collection of the king’s due." ^[6]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 130) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Soni 1991, xxix) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[3]: (Soni 1991, 2) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[4]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[5]: (Wicks 1992, 149) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[6]: (Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[7]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[8]: (Wicks 1992, 147) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Wagaru Dhammathat "a thirteenth-century civil code commissioned by the ruler of Martaban based upon that of Pagan" ^[1] mentions occupations, including "washer-men, boatmen, soldiers, and herdsmen, all of whom could be hired for wages." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 125-126) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

All Pagan kings "undertook or patronized" the building of shrines "the soil of Pagan got crowded with solid as well as hollow pagodas and also with monastic establishments." ^[1] Buddhist monks in monasteries.

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxvii) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

"Land and slaves were often included among the properties dedicated to the religious order, thereby decreasing the amount of revenue available to the state. This drain on the resources of the state necessitated the introduction of an administrative hierarchy to regulate and oversee such donations." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 126) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Wagaru Dhammathat "a thirteenth-century civil code commissioned by the ruler of Martaban based upon that of Pagan" ^[1] mentions occupations, including "washer-men, boatmen, soldiers, and herdsmen, all of whom could be hired for wages. People with similar occupations tended to reside in the same village. Pagan inscriptions mention villages of masons, silversmiths, goatherds, construction workers, potters, musicians, painters, woodcarvers, blacksmiths, hunters, salt-producers, boat and raft makers. Merchants are mentioned only incidentally in Pagan inscriptions. One possible reason for this omission is that profit-making acitivies were generally frowned upon or, more likely, that merchants did not have a privileged position within Pagan society." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 125-126) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"4.8 Building and Restoration costs at Pagan: 1248 ... On the building of the library ... Grand total of silver 215 klyap." ^[1] I think this refers to government/court activity.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 138) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place". ^[1] Possibly suspected unknown until 1174 CE but the language ’firmly in place’ suggests that this administrative structure may have been preceded by an earlier lesser-developed form.
Tax-assessor (kamkun) at least from mid-12th century. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place". ^[1] Possibly suspected unknown until 1174 CE but the language ’firmly in place’ suggests that this administrative structure may have been preceded by an earlier lesser-developed form.
Tax-assessor (kamkun) at least from mid-12th century. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place". ^[1] Possibly suspected unknown until 1174 CE but the language ’firmly in place’ suggests that this administrative structure may have been preceded by an earlier lesser-developed form.
Tax-assessor (kamkun) at least from mid-12th century. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"An inscription of 1272 ... records an investigation into tax-exempted lands because ’the judges did not believe that the property was actually donated to the Buddha.’" ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 151) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Wagaru Dhammathat "a thirteenth-century civil code commissioned by the ruler of Martaban based upon that of Pagan" said that men who gave gifts to charity (dana) or as offering (pujita) would get their wishes fulfilled. ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 125-126) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"Religion and trade here came together in a way common to many parts of Southeast Asia. The river was an avenue for communication and commerce. The monastery, as a central place for worship and learning, teemed with visitors on religious holidays. The association of the market with the temple was a natural one, the former a source of food and offerings for the visiting laity, as well as souvenirs of the pilgrimage, the latter a convenient and safe place for merchants to set up their stalls." ^[1] Perhaps not a specialist building? "The market was located in the far south of Pagan’s domains, on one of the main rivers connecting Burma with the Bay of Bengal. The reference to the market as a psa [psa krom] gives some indication of the impact of Arab trade in the region. An indigenous Mon word was not used to describe the market; we find instead a term dervied from the Persian word bazar. ... as in the case of the Thai in the late thirteenth century, it could simply mean that the idea of a permanent covered marketplace (the original meaning of bazar) was new and required a term not available in the native language to describe the nature and extent of the activities taking place there." ^[1] This passages indicates it was a permanent, specialist building.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 124) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Burmese Glass Palace Chronicle (19th century) suggests Cansu I/Alaungsithu (r.1113-1169/70 CE) built "canals, reservoirs, dams and other land improvements to assist the farmers." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 130-131) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Inscriptions refer to storehouses. ^[1] "The fact that storehouses appear as a part of the description could possibly reflect a largely redistributive focus of Pagan’s economy in the eleventh century." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Buddhist architecture existed at Pagan and at Prome before this period. ^[1]
Stupas, pagodas and shrines. ^[2] "nowhere in the world, so far as our knowledge goes, the Buddhist shrines hailed as pagodas have been more numerous per square mile than at Pagan." ^[3]
"dark cave-like hollow pagodas of the early half of the dynasty gave way to temples with more light and sanitation, the solid shrines evidenced transformation towards a bell-shape besides adding dignity and beauty to the structures through the imposition of requisite ornamentations." ^[4]
All Pagan kings "undertook or patronized" the building of shrines "the soil of Pagan got crowded with solid as well as hollow pagodas and also with monastic establishments." ^[5]
"According to tradition, in 1057, Aniruddha ... conquered the southern Mon center of Thaton and brought back with him the Pali scriptures of Theravada Buddhism, a large number of Buddhist monks, and scores of artists and craftsmen, thereby initiating more than two centuries of building activity at Pagan." ^[6]

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxix) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[2]: (Soni 1991) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[3]: (Soni 1991, 3) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[4]: (Soni 1991, xxvi) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[5]: (Soni 1991, xxvii) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[6]: (Wicks 1992, 121-122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"According to tradition, in 1057, Aniruddha ... conquered the southern Mon center of Thaton and brought back with him the Pali scriptures of Theravada Buddhism". ^[1] Were the Pali scriptures put in a library building?
"4.8 Building and Restoration costs at Pagan: 1248 ... On the building of the library ... Grand total of silver 215 klyap." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 121-122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 138) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"The Bawdwin mines are reputed to have been worked since the tenth century; in addition to the refuse of mining operations there are ruins of roads, stone bridges, settlements, fortifications, and burial sites." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Inferred by trade with Sri Lanka and an extensive coastline.

Tagaung in Upper Burma produced a lot of gold. ^[1] Later period? "The Bawdwin mines are reputed to have been worked since the tenth century; in addition to the refuse of mining operations there are ruins of roads, stone bridges, settlements, fortifications, and burial sites." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 147) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization." ^[1] Silver mines in the Mongmao region of the Shan states. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 133-134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Enclosure walls. ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 138) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"The Bawdwin mines are reputed to have been worked since the tenth century; in addition to the refuse of mining operations there are ruins of roads, stone bridges, settlements, fortifications, and burial sites." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan. "Before Pagan came to prominence under the Burmese in the 11th century A.D., Sri Ksetra under the Pyus in the Prome zone in Lower Burma was the seat of Buddhist culture" and here, according to Professor Than Tun were found ’Gold leaf manuscripts’. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Soni 1991, 9) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

"it was at this time that the transitional period, during which Mon influences were considerably at work, linguistically, culturally, religiously and architecturally, as testified to by inscriptions and archaeological finds, finally gave way to the supremacy of the Burmese wishes... the Burmese language by then considerably evolved and enriched to a literary status, became the official language" ^[1] "The Burmese made the Mon alphabet their own and composed large numbers of dedicatory inscriptions using the Mon language." ^[2]

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxvi) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"a place where at one time resided and moved about thousands of monks ... reciting the sacred texts or delivering sermons..." ^[1]

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxvii) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

"a place where at one time resided and moved about thousands of monks ... reciting the sacred texts or delivering sermons..." ^[1] "According to tradition, in 1057, Aniruddha ... conquered the southern Mon center of Thaton and brought back with him the Pali scriptures of Theravada Buddhism". ^[2]

[1]: (Soni 1991, xxvii) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 121-122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) "contributed in significant ways to the language, literature, and architecture of later Pagan". ^[1] Literature preceded the Burmese Pagan.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"The Bawdwin mines are reputed to have been worked since the tenth century; in addition to the refuse of mining operations there are ruins of roads, stone bridges, settlements, fortifications, and burial sites. It is equally significant that silver Shan shell-money, used as currency throughout northern Burma, Thailand, and Laos until the late nineteenth century, originated from Bawdwingyi." ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being ’weighed and given’ at the conclusion of each transaction." ^[1] "One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or ’bar silver,’ suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, ’weighed and given,’ commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being ’weighed and given’ at the conclusion of each transaction." ^[1] "One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or ’bar silver,’ suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, ’weighed and given,’ commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper." ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan "issued extensive coinages" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE. ^[1] "By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being ’weighed and given’ at the conclusion of each transaction." ^[1] "One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or ’bar silver,’ suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, ’weighed and given,’ commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper." ^[2] "Klyap is a ’true Burmese word’ and means ’something pressed between two flat surfaces’. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan." ^[3] It is not yet explained "why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma." ^[4]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[3]: (Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[4]: (Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan "issued extensive coinages" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE. ^[1] "By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being ’weighed and given’ at the conclusion of each transaction." ^[1] "One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or ’bar silver,’ suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, ’weighed and given,’ commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper." ^[2] "Klyap is a ’true Burmese word’ and means ’something pressed between two flat surfaces’. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan." ^[3] It is not yet explained "why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma." ^[4]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[3]: (Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[4]: (Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan "issued extensive coinages" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE. ^[1] "By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being ’weighed and given’ at the conclusion of each transaction." ^[1] "One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or ’bar silver,’ suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, ’weighed and given,’ commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper." ^[2] "Klyap is a ’true Burmese word’ and means ’something pressed between two flat surfaces’. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan." ^[3] It is not yet explained "why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma." ^[4]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[3]: (Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[4]: (Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

The Ceylonese bought elephants from Pagan Burma. ^[1] Economy monetized with silver bars only in the thirteenth century. ^[2]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 129-130) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

[2]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Money lender (ponca) toward the end of the 13th century "assisted in a land transaction" which suggested elevated status of profit-making work. ^[1] Presumably the money lender had existed at least since monetization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Money lender (ponca) toward the end of the 13th century "assisted in a land transaction" which suggested elevated status of profit-making work. ^[1] Presumably the money lender had existed at least since monetization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Money lender (ponca) toward the end of the 13th century "assisted in a land transaction" which suggested elevated status of profit-making work. ^[1] Presumably the money lender had existed at least since monetization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 134) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Secretaries of the ministers of the king are known to have traveled on government business. ^[1]

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 149) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place, and weights and measures were standardized, preparing the way for the monetization of the Burmese economy in the thirteenth century." ^[1] Measurement systems preceded the standardization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place, and weights and measures were standardized, preparing the way for the monetization of the Burmese economy in the thirteenth century." ^[1] Measurement systems preceded the standardization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place, and weights and measures were standardized, preparing the way for the monetization of the Burmese economy in the thirteenth century." ^[1] Measurement systems preceded the standardization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.

Architecture.

"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place, and weights and measures were standardized, preparing the way for the monetization of the Burmese economy in the thirteenth century." ^[1] Measurement systems preceded the standardization.

[1]: (Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.