Home Region:  North China (East Asia)

Qin Empire

338 BCE 207 BCE

SC EC CC PT EQ 2020  cn_qin_emp / CnImQin

Displayed: 218 BCE








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Preceding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.

No General Descriptions provided.

General Variables
Identity and Location
Temporal Bounds
Political and Cultural Relations
Language
Religion
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Hierarchical Complexity
Professions
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Law
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Transport Infrastructure
Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Information / Money
Information / Postal System
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Military use of Metals
Projectiles
Handheld weapons
Animals used in warfare
Armor
Naval technology
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Qin Empire (cn_qin_emp) was in:
Home NGA: None

General Variables
Identity and Location
Temporal Bounds
Political and Cultural Relations
Language
Religion

Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
350,000 people
300 BCE
Population of the Largest Settlement:
200,000 people
200 BCE *Bad Years, polity duration: [-338, -207]
Population of the Largest Settlement:
200,000 people
100 BCE *Bad Years, polity duration: [-338, -207]

Polity Territory:
340,000 km2
290 BCE
Polity Territory:
820,000 km2
270 BCE
Polity Territory:
1,300,000 km2
250 BCE
Polity Territory:
1,967,000 km2
230 BCE
Polity Territory:
2,433,000 km2
210 BCE

Polity Population:
40,000,000 people
207 BCE

Largest Communication Distance:
1100
[-338, -207]

Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
5
[-338, -207]

Religious Level:
-
[-338, -207]

Military Level:
6
[-338, -207]

Administrative Level:
7
[-338, -207]

Professions
Professional Soldier:
Present
[-338, -207]

Professional Priesthood:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Professional Military Officer:
Present
[-338, -207]

Source Of Support:
land
[-338, -207]
Source Of Support:
state salary
[-338, -207]

Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Present
[-338, -207]

Merit Promotion:
Present
[-338, -207]

Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[-338, -207]

Examination System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Law
Professional Lawyer:
Unknown
[-338, -207]

Judge:
Unknown
[-338, -207]

Formal Legal Code:
Present
[-338, -207]

Court:
Present
[-338, -207]

Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
Present
[-338, -207]

Irrigation System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Food Storage Site:
Present
[-338, -207]

Drinking Water Supply System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Communal Building:
Present
[-338, -207]

Utilitarian Public Building:
Present
[-338, -207]

Symbolic Building:
Present
[-338, -207]

Knowledge Or Information Building:
Present
[-338, -207]

Entertainment Building:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Special Purpose House:
Present
[-338, -207]

Transport Infrastructure
Road:
Present
[-338, -207]

Canal:
Present
[-338, -207]

Bridge:
Present
[-338, -207]

Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
Present
[-338, -207]

Information / Writing System
Written Record:
Present
[-338, -207]

Script:
Present
[-338, -207]

Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Nonwritten Record:
Present
[-338, -207]

Non Phonetic Writing:
Present
[-338, -207]

Mnemonic Device:
Present
[-338, -207]

Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
Present
[-338, -207]

Sacred Text:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Religious Literature:
Present
[-338, -207]

Practical Literature:
Present
[-338, -207]

Philosophy:
Present
[-338, -207]

History:
Present
[-338, -207]

Fiction:
Present
[-338, -207]

Calendar:
Present
[-338, -207]

Information / Money
Token:
Present
[-338, -207]

Precious Metal:
Present
[-338, -207]

Paper Currency:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Indigenous Coin:
Present
[-338, -207]

Foreign Coin:
Absent
[-338, -207]

Article:
Unknown
[-338, -207]

Debt And Credit Structure:
Present
[-338, -207]

Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
Present
[-338, -207]

General Postal Service:
Present
[-338, -207]

Courier:
Present
[-338, -207]

Information / Measurement System
Weight Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Volume Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Time Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Length Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Geometrical Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]

Area Measurement System:
Present
[-338, -207]


Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Military use of Metals
Projectiles
Handheld weapons
Animals used in warfare
Armor
Naval technology

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
[-338, -207]
Luxury Precious Metal: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Qin Empire
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Present

‘‘‘ gold, silver, bronze “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the "Tomb No. 1," a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始,秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘,出土了大量陶器、铜器,以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有:金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” [Xinhua_News_Agency 2022] “The first and second bronze chariots, along with their horse buddies, are all decked out with fancy gold and silver decorations. The horse gear like straps, reins, and collars are mostly made of shiny gold and silver. The tips of the pole, the hook on the yoke, the edges of some curved parts on the umbrella, and even the parts around the wheels are all silver. Out of the 3,642 pieces on the second bronze chariot and horse, a good 737 of them are gold bits, and 983 are silver. When you combine the gold and silver decorations from both sets of chariots and horses, you get approxiamately 3,500 pieces. That's more than half of all the parts in the two sets put together. To show off the royal style, the horse heads wear these fancy headpieces made of woven gold and silver strands, creating a cool design. And around the neck of each horse, there's a special collar made of about 84 pieces of gold and silver tubes—looks pretty fancy. When you add it all up, the two chariots have more than 14 kilograms of these carefully crafted gold and silver pieces. (一、二号铜车马上使用众多的金银装饰件,铜马的络头、缰、项圈、靼等大部分都由金银制成,另外在衡的两端、轭的顶端和钩端,轮轴的轴端、车伞部分的诸多弓栋之末也是银质的,其中在二号铜车马的3642个零件中、就有金饰件737件,银饰件983件。再把两乘铜车马的金银饰件加在一起就更多了,共3500件左右,约占两乘钢车马零件总数的50%以上,为了炫耀皇室车马的富丽,马头上均戴有金银编缀并与金银泡连接组成的络头,左右骖马的脖子上各佩戴一个由84节金银管组成的项圈,十分华贵。在两乘车上共镶嵌金银制品14公斤多……)” [Xu 2002] ’’’ “Gold is produced in Yuzhang. (豫章出黄金。)” [Sima 1982] “Gold is produced from the east side of Ru River and Han River. (金起于汝、汉之右。)” [Guan 2019] “In the southern part of the state of Chu, gold is produced inside the Lishui River, and many people secreatly mine the gold. (荆南之地、丽水之中生金, 人多窃采金。)” [Han 1998] ‘" “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the "Tomb No. 1," a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始,秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘,出土了大量陶器、铜器,以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有:金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” [Xinhua_News_Agency 2022] “The first and second bronze chariots, along with their horse buddies, are all decked out with fancy gold and silver decorations. The horse gear like straps, reins, and collars are mostly made of shiny gold and silver. The tips of the pole, the hook on the yoke, the edges of some curved parts on the umbrella, and even the parts around the wheels are all silver. Out of the 3,642 pieces on the second bronze chariot and horse, a good 737 of them are gold bits, and 983 are silver. When you combine the gold and silver decorations from both sets of chariots and horses, you get approxiamately 3,500 pieces. That's more than half of all the parts in the two sets put together. To show off the royal style, the horse heads wear these fancy headpieces made of woven gold and silver strands, creating a cool design. And around the neck of each horse, there's a special collar made of about 84 pieces of gold and silver tubes—looks pretty fancy. When you add it all up, the two chariots have more than 14 kilograms of these carefully crafted gold and silver pieces. (一、二号铜车马上使用众多的金银装饰件,铜马的络头、缰、项圈、靼等大部分都由金银制成,另外在衡的两端、轭的顶端和钩端,轮轴的轴端、车伞部分的诸多弓栋之末也是银质的,其中在二号铜车马的3642个零件中、就有金饰件737件,银饰件983件。再把两乘铜车马的金银饰件加在一起就更多了,共3500件左右,约占两乘钢车马零件总数的50%以上,为了炫耀皇室车马的富丽,马头上均戴有金银编缀并与金银泡连接组成的络头,左右骖马的脖子上各佩戴一个由84节金银管组成的项圈,十分华贵。在两乘车上共镶嵌金银制品14公斤多……)” [Xu 2002] “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the "Tomb No. 1," a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始,秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘,出土了大量陶器、铜器,以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有:金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” [Xinhua_News_Agency 2022]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: Inferred Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Qin Empire
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

‘" "During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… There is a lack of records regarding incense in the research of the Qin dynasty. However, the Xianyang Museum keeps a bronze censer inscribed with the seal script characters "Da Ji," hinting at a Qin-era origin. At the same time, historical documents and archaeological findings from that period do not indicate the presence of foreign incense during the Qin dynasty. This leads to the speculation that the types of aromatic substances used in the Qin dynasty were akin to those used in the pre-Qin era. (春秋战国时期,我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草,主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗,这种方式一直延续到汉代……秦朝留下的极少的著作中,均不见有关香料的记载。不过,咸阳博物馆藏有一件铜熏炉,座上阴刻篆字“大吉”两字,其年代大致为秦。目前的历史文献和考古发掘材料都没有表明秦朝就有外来香料,由此推测,秦朝的用香品种当与先秦类似。)" [Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70] ’" "During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… There is a lack of records regarding incense in the research of the Qin dynasty. However, the Xianyang Museum keeps a bronze censer inscribed with the seal script characters "Da Ji," hinting at a Qin-era origin. At the same time, historical documents and archaeological findings from that period do not indicate the presence of foreign incense during the Qin dynasty. This leads to the speculation that the types of aromatic substances used in the Qin dynasty were akin to those used in the pre-Qin era. (春秋战国时期,我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草,主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗,这种方式一直延续到汉代……秦朝留下的极少的著作中,均不见有关香料的记载。不过,咸阳博物馆藏有一件铜熏炉,座上阴刻篆字“大吉”两字,其年代大致为秦。目前的历史文献和考古发掘材料都没有表明秦朝就有外来香料,由此推测,秦朝的用香品种当与先秦类似。)" [Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70] ‘" "From the pre-Qin period to the Qin dynasty, the range of incense primarily comprised local herbs... The use of incense was mainly confined to ritual contexts and wasn't commonly incorporated into daily activities. It was only during the Western Han dynasty that the extensive use of incense in everyday life became more widespread.(先秦至秦的香料品种多为本土香草……用香范围也多在祭祀领域,日用并不常见。大规模的生活用香,迟至西汉才开始。)” [Wang_Ma_Li 2014, p. 65]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Glass Goods: Inferred Present
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present

‘" “The earliest examples of primitive glassware in a style resembling "Faience" appeared in China during the early Western Zhou period or possibly a bit earlier, around the 11th century BC. However, true Chinese glass didn't really come onto the scene until around the 5th century BC… During the period (inferring to Late Spring and Autumn Period) there was a noticeable influx of glass products imported from West Asia. Among these, the most notable are what we commonly call "dragonfly eye beads," while in the Western world, they're known as "eyebeads."...In the tombs of the Earl of Yu and his wife Jingji, archaeologists found over a thousand of Faience tubes and beads. This clearly suggests that the quantity of these items is connected to their social status… During the mid to later Warring States period, the state of Qin expanded its borders to the west, continually pushing its territory outward. The areas where we've found these dragonfly eye beads today—like Gansu, Sichuan, and Shaanxi—all fell within the domain of Qin… Provinces in China where these dragonfly eye glass beads have turned up include Hunan, Hubei, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Guangdong, Yunnan, Gansu, Xinjiang, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi.” (中国最早的“费昂斯”式原始玻璃器物,出现于西周前期或稍早时间,约公元前十一世纪前后,而真正的中国玻璃则大约要到公元前五世纪才告诞生……这个时期(指春秋晚期)还有颇多的西亚进口的玻璃制品出现,其中最主要的就算是蜻蜓眼珠了:“蜻蜓眼珠”是近代文物界的俗称,西方称为眼珠(eyebeads)……鱼(yú)伯墓及其妻子井姬墓共出土费昂斯管、珠过千件,显然拥有的数量跟其身份地位有关。……秦国于战国中期以后在西边扩大,版图不断往西开拓:现今所见甘肃、四川、陕西出土蜻蜓眼珠的地方均属于秦领土……中国出土有蜻蜓眼玻璃珠的省份有湖南、湖北、河北、山西、山东、陕西、四川、广东、云南、甘肃、新疆、江苏和江西。)” [Kwan 2001, p. 6], [Kwan 2001, p. 13], [Kwan 2001, p. 17], [Kwan 2001, pp. 23-24], [Kwan 2001, p. 33] note from RA: The appearance of these glass beads, which originally as foreign objects after the Spring and Autumn period, saw a surge in popularity during the Warring States period. Locally produced beads dominated the scene. Since in the Han Dynasty, these beads still presented occasionally, it can be assumed that dragonfly-eye beads were also present during the Qin Dynasty, which served as a transitional period between the Warring States and the Han Dynasty. “From the late Spring and Autumn period to the early Warring States period, people didn't just bring in “dragonfly eye beads” – they also brought along the way to make them and the skills to do it. After a bit of learning, the Chinese started making these beads themselves…Back in the late Spring and Autumn period, these dragonfly-eye beads were brought in from West Asia, which required a long journey. They were really valuable and rare, and therefore were initially only accessible to those of noble status… As time went on into the Warring States period, China started making its own dragonfly-eye beads. But in the beginning, their production was limited by technology and remained exclusive to the people with higher social status… It was not until the middle of the Warring States period more and more dragonfly-eye beads were being made locally… They were found in graves in Hunan and Hubei, including some tombs of the populace… The majority of dragonfly-eye beads were uncovered within tombs from the Warring States period. Scattered instances of discovery from the Han Dynasty through the Wei and Jin Dynasties are rare, and these beads are believed to be remnants of earlier times.” (在春秋末期至战国初期输入中国的不只是一种蜻蜓眼珠制成品,还可能包括了制造的工艺及技术,经过一段较短的学习期以后,蜻蜓眼珠的生产随即进入本土化阶段…… 春秋末蜻蜓眼珠属进口品,从西亚输入,路途遥远,珍贵难得,价值十分高昂,故此最起初只为士级以上所能拥有……战国以后虽出现了中国自产的蜻蜓眼珠,但在起初的技术及产量都有限的情况下,加上受到诸侯所辖管,蜻蜓眼珠仍只保留在社会上较高身份的一层……大概到了战国中期以后,本土生产蜻蜓眼珠数量较多……湖南、湖北地区墓葬多有出土,其中更有身份属下士、庶人墓葬。……蜻蜓眼珠大部分出土于战国墓葬,汉代至两晋出土的只有零星几个,相信只属前代遗物。)” [Kwan 2001, pp. 22-26]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Food: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Qin Empire

‘’' “The tastiest meats are: Xing xing (likely a type of monkeys or apes, possibly macaques) lips, barbecued badger feet, Junyan (a bird) meat, Shudang’s hooves, and Maoxiang’s short tail. (肉之美者,猩猩之唇,獾獾之炙,隽燕之翠,述汤之,旄象之约。)” [Lü 2014] The most delicious fish include the catfish from Dongting Lake and the flatfish from the East China Sea. (鱼之美者:洞庭之鱄,东海之鲕。)” [Lü 2014]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Fabrics: Uncoded
Consumption by Ruler: Inferred Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present

“According to what we've found so far, the extra tombs near Qin Shi Huang's burial mound are spread out on the sides - east, west, north, and the northwest corner. …However, judging from the burial objects in these tombs, they are much richer than ordinary people’s tombs. About 200 objects made of different materials like gold, silver, bronze, iron, pottery, jade, shells, and more were found. There were also things made of shiny lacquer and traces of silk. (根据目前勘探情况来看,秦始皇陵的陪葬墓分布在封土堆的东侧、西侧、北侧及西北角……但从这些墓的随葬品来看,则比平民墓葬丰富得多,随葬品有金、银、铜、铁、陶、玉、蚌、贝等不同质地的遗物200件左右,还有漆器及丝绸残迹。)” [Xu 2002]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Statuary: Present
Consumption by Ruler: Present

‘" “A collection of 46 bronze waterfowl has been excavated... Covering up imperfections in both surface design and casting, copper plates have been deftly introduced to mend the flaws... This method was commonly used in the old Mediterranean area, including places like Egypt, Greece, and Rome. They especially used it when making bronze statues.... The distinctive set of trace elements within the mud cores of these waterfowl stands out from the composition of the soil in the Qin Mausoleum region. This peculiar contrast suggests that the production of these bronze waterfowl likely occurred outside the confines of the Qin Mausoleum area. (青铜水禽共出土46件……表面的工艺缺陷及铸造缺陷均以铜板镶嵌法进行补缀。……该工艺在地中海地区古埃及、古希腊以及罗马时期青铜雕像上广泛使用……水禽泥芯微量元素与秦陵地区土壤的微量元素明显有别,可能表明青铜水禽的生产地点并非秦陵地区。) [Xu 2017, p. 114]


[-338, -207]
Luxury Precious Stone: Present
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Inferred Present
Consumption by Common People: Inferred Absent

pearl, jade, jadeite “(Qin Shihuang had been) mining metal-rich ores, smelting bronze,using molten metal to seal the gaps inside the coffins, applying lacquer on the surface (of the coffins), and embellishing them with pearls and jade, while frequently employing jadeite as ornaments. (合采金石,冶铜锢其内,桼涂其外,披以珠玉,饰以翡翠。) ” [Ban 1962] At this time, you (the King of Qing, later became Qin Shihuang) possess the exquisite jade from Kunshan, and the luminous pearl from the Marquis of Sui with Heshibi (Mr. He's jade), your attire sparkles with gemstones as radiant as the full moon. … If only items produced within the state of Qin were to be approved, then this luminous gem would never have decorated the palace; objects crafted from rhinoceros horn or ivory would never have become your cherished possessions... The gold and tin of the south won't be put to use by you, nor will the pigments from Sichuan be chosen as coloring agents. (今陛下致昆山之玉,有随和之宝,垂明月之珠……必秦国之所生然后可,则是夜光之璧不饰朝廷,犀象之器不为玩好,……江南金锡不为用,西蜀丹青不为采。) [Sima 1982] ‘" “(Qin Shihuang had been) mining metal-rich ores, smelting bronze,using molten metal to seal the gaps inside the coffins, applying lacquer on the surface (of the coffins), and embellishing them with pearls and jade, while frequently employing jadeite as ornaments. (合采金石,冶铜锢其内,桼涂其外,披以珠玉,饰以翡翠。) ” [Ban 1962] At this time, you (the King of Qing, later became Qin Shihuang) possess the exquisite jade from Kunshan, and the luminous pearl from the Marquis of Sui with Heshibi (Mr. He's jade), your attire sparkles with gemstones as radiant as the full moon. … If only items produced within the state of Qin were to be approved, then this luminous gem would never have decorated the palace; objects crafted from rhinoceros horn or ivory would never have become your cherished possessions... The gold and tin of the south won't be put to use by you, nor will the pigments from Sichuan be chosen as coloring agents. (今陛下致昆山之玉,有随和之宝,垂明月之珠……必秦国之所生然后可,则是夜光之璧不饰朝廷,犀象之器不为玩好,……江南金锡不为用,西蜀丹青不为采。)” [Sima 1982] “During the Spring and Autumn Period, the state of Qin had a rich collection of excavated materials, including both jade ornaments and beads. However, a sudden gap in archaeological findings related to beads and jade occurs from the Warring States period onwards. The practice of the Qin people abandoning the use of beads and jade emerged after the "Shang Yang's Reform"...With the kinship system as its foundation and rituals as its expression, China Central Plain Culture faced rejection, leading to a decline in the popularity of jade items and various accessories to Qin people… The values held by the Qin people brought about significant changes in the decoration norms of the Central Plain, essentially altering the official standards...This approach, characterized by its practical nature in signifying personal identity, endured until the Eastern Han Dynasty...The fading away of this practice is elaborated in Houhanshu (Book of the Later Han), in the chapter of Yufuzhi (the monography about state coaches and court robes): "In ancient times, both rulers and ministers adorned themselves with jade, thus establishing distinctions of rank; the higher-ups had leather knee covering worn during sacrifices, and this marked the differentiation of status.” (春秋时期,无论是玉饰还是珠子,秦国都有比较丰富的出土资料。但是战国以降,珠玉的考古资料突然中断。秦人抛弃珠玉的做法发生在“商鞅变法”之后……以宗法为载体,以礼仪为形式的中原文化遭到排斥,玉器和各种配饰也随之衰落……秦人的价值观在很大程度上改变了中原的装饰制度,至少是改变了官方的装饰制度……用最简洁功利的形式来标志个人身份,这种制度一直延续到东汉以后。……《后汉书·舆服志》是这样解释它的消失的,“古者君臣佩玉,尊卑有度;上有韍,贵贱有殊。”)” [Zhu 2010, p. 120], [Zhu 2010, p. 142]



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions