No General Descriptions provided.
| none |
| Preceding: Anglo-Saxon England II (gb_anglo_saxon_2) [elite replacement] | |
| Succeeding: Plantagenet England (gb_england_plantagenet) [continuity] |
| confederated state |
| absent | 1066 CE 1115 CE |
| present | 1116 CE 1153 CE |
| present |
| present |
| absent | 1066 CE 1112 CE |
| present | 1113 CE 1153 CE |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| Year Range | Norman England (gb_england_norman) was in: |
|---|
The primary capital cities during the Norman period were Winchester and later London. Both cities fall within UTM Zone 30U [webpage_World UTM Grid], [Clanchy 1993]
Winchester was the principal city and de facto capital of Anglo-Saxon England, particularly under the House of Wessex. Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, William the Conqueror retained Winchester as the ceremonial and administrative center due to its historic significance and royal treasury. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
By Henry I's reign (1100–1135), London had become the primary capital for governance, with Westminster as the center of royal administration. [Clanchy 1993]
The period 1087–1120 was characterized by political stability under William II and Henry I, territorial unity with Normandy, and administrative consolidation. Economic growth and military dominance supported the expansion of Norman influence in Wales and strengthened ties with Scotland. Culturally, this era saw architectural advancements, including cathedrals and castles, and monastic reforms. [Carpenter 2003]
The Norman Conquest resulted in the near-total replacement of the Anglo-Saxon ruling class by Norman elites: The Anglo-Saxon nobility and earls were displaced, with their lands redistributed to Norman lords and knights who became the new feudal rulers. By the time of the Domesday Book (1086), less than 5% of English land was held by Anglo-Saxon nobles, demonstrating a near-complete Norman takeover of the elite landowning class. [Carpenter 2003], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
While the king had overarching authority, regional lords (barons and earls) governed their territories with a high degree of autonomy in local matters. Regional governance was a mix of royal appointments and hereditary positions: Sheriffs were appointed by the king and represented the Crown’s authority in local jurisdictions. Earls and barons, however, were often hereditary and wielded considerable power within their domains, especially in areas like taxation and governance. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Latin was the dominant language for administration and official documents in Norman England. [Clanchy 1993], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
After the Norman Conquest, Anglo-Norman French became the language of the ruling class, including the nobility, royal court, and military leadership. [Clanchy 1993]
Old English remained the language of the majority population, especially for the peasantry and local communities. [Carpenter 2003]
The Normans followed Roman Catholic Christianity, which was already established in England prior to the Conquest under Anglo-Saxon rule. [Clanchy 1993]
The estimation for the boroughs (cities) of England in the time of Domesday Book, AD 1086, would show the following: London 17850 [Russell 1972, p. 122]
The approximate land area of modern England provides a baseline for Norman England, as the territorial boundaries were largely consistent. With Welsh Marches (maximum extent). [Carpenter 2003, pp. 125-162], [Frere 1999]
DOMESDAY POPULATION: Population of areas not covered by survey estimated on basis of area and density compared with their neighbors. Total population of England estimated at about 1,100,000. [Russell 1948, p. 34]
Largest Communication Distance: 490 kilometers (London to Carlisle) by land. [Britnell 1993], [webpage_Ordnance Survey | Great Britain's...]
1.Large City (monumental structures, market, central government buildings, cathedral, port): 10,000–25,000 inhabitants. Example: London. 2.City (cathedral, market, regional government buildings): 5,000–10,000 inhabitants. Examples: Winchester, York, Norwich. 3.Large Town (market, castle, administrative buildings, parish church): 2,000–5,000 inhabitants. Examples: Lincoln, Durham, Exeter. 4.Town (market, small local government buildings, parish church): 500–2,000 inhabitants. Examples: Shrewsbury, Chester, Gloucester. 5.Village (shrine or parish church, granaries, farmland): 100–500 inhabitants. Examples: Common throughout Domesday records. 6.Hamlet (residential only, farming): Fewer than 100 inhabitants. Examples: Scattered rural clusters. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
Level 1: Archbishop (head of the church in the realm, controls large dioceses, oversees bishops): Example: Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York. Level 2: Bishop (regional church leader, governs dioceses, oversees cathedrals and priests): Examples: Bishops of Winchester, Durham, Norwich. Level 3: Abbot/Abbess (head of a major monastery or abbey, oversees monastic communities): Examples: Abbots of Westminster, Glastonbury. Level 4: Dean/Canon (senior cleric in cathedrals, assists the bishop, manages cathedral chapters): Examples: Canons of Durham Cathedral. Level 5: Parish Priest (local religious leader, performs sacraments, administers the parish): Examples: Parish priests serving rural and urban churches. Level 6: Monk/Nun (members of monastic communities, focus on prayer, study, and local charity): Examples: Monks of St. Albans Abbey. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Barlow 1979]
Level 1: King (commander-in-chief of the armed forces, ultimate authority in military campaigns and defense) Level 2: Earl/Baron (regional military leader, commands troops within their territory, often responsible for defending borders) Level 3: Knight (mounted warrior, vassals of lords, often commanding small groups of soldiers) Level 4: Sergeant-at-Arms/Man-at-Arms (professional soldier, supports knights, performs guard or combat duties) Level 5: Foot Soldier/Archer (common infantry, forms the bulk of armies, skilled or unskilled) [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Level 1: King (supreme ruler of the entire realm, oversees all governance, justice, taxation, and military matters). Level 2: Earl (regional governors, rule large territories known as earldoms, responsible for defense, taxation, and enforcing royal law in their regions). Level 3: Sheriff (district administrators, manage shires under the king's authority, responsible for collecting taxes, organizing local defense, and presiding over royal justice in courts). Level 4: Manor Lords/Barons (local administrators managing manors or estates, oversee agricultural production, enforce manorial courts, and collect rents from peasants). Level 5: Village Head (Reeve) (leader of a village, elected or appointed to coordinate local agricultural work, represent the village to the manor lord, and manage disputes). [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Knightly Class: The Normans relied heavily on knights, Knights were landholders who owed military service in exchange for their fiefs. While knights were trained in warfare and served as elite warriors, their service was often limited to the feudal 40-day obligation, and their primary livelihood came from landholding. [R_Morillo 0]
Bishops and senior clergy were full-time religious professionals, managing dioceses and performing significant administrative, liturgical, and pastoral duties. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Barlow 1979]
Roles such as castellans or knights leading small units were temporary and tied to specific contexts, such as defending a castle or participating in a campaign. These were not salaried or full-time specialist positions. [R_Morillo 0]
Regional governors and nobles held land granted by the king through the feudal system. They derived income by: Collecting rents and tribute from the peasants working the land. Leveraging agricultural production for sustenance and trade. Example: The Earl of Northumbria lived off the revenues of his vast estates and owed military and administrative service in return. [Barlow 2014]
Royal Treasury and Administrative Centers:
Winchester Treasury:
Winchester served as the financial hub of Norman England. The royal treasury was located here, storing taxes, revenues, and royal documents.
Specialized features included storage for coins, charters, and records.
Chancery Offices:
The chancery was responsible for producing royal charters and writs. While it was a mobile institution tied to the king's court, it often operated out of permanent locations like Winchester or Westminster. [Carpenter 2003]
The Norman administrative and military systems were based on feudal obligations and personal loyalty. Offices and positions were typically awarded based on:
Noble birth or lineage.
Personal connections to the king or other high-ranking nobles.
Example: Barons and sheriffs were often chosen for their loyalty or ties to the king, not for proven administrative or military competence.
Lack of Institutionalized Procedures:
There were no standardized or institutionalized systems for evaluating performance or promoting individuals based on merit.
Promotions to higher ranks (e.g., from knight to baron or from minor clergy to bishop) were irregular and depended on the favor of the king or other patrons. [Carpenter 2003]
State officials in Norman England, including sheriffs, earls, and knights, performed multiple functions:
Administrative duties: Tax collection, law enforcement, and land management.
Military duties: Leading troops, organizing local defenses, and garrisoning castles.
The lack of functional specialization meant these officials were not dedicated full-time administrative specialists. [Carpenter 2003]
No Institutionalized Testing or Qualification Standards:
Norman England lacked any formalized or institutionalized examination system for selecting officials or appointees. Instead, positions were typically filled based on:
Feudal obligations and loyalty.
Noble lineage or social standing.
Royal favor or personal connections. [Carpenter 2003]
Legal roles in Norman England were not specialized. Law was administered by sheriffs, barons, bishops, and the king's court, all of whom combined legal responsibilities with other roles (e.g., administrative or military). There was no distinct class of individuals dedicated solely to the practice or interpretation of law. [Carpenter 2003]
Legal cases in Norman England were presided over by sheriffs, barons, or bishops, who combined judicial responsibilities with other administrative, military, or ecclesiastical duties. They were not full-time specialists dedicated exclusively to judging cases. [Carpenter 2003]
Norman England had a formal legal system that was partially codified and uniform across the realm, combining elements of existing Anglo-Saxon law with Norman innovations. While there was no comprehensive written legal code akin to the Roman legal system, laws were documented in specific contexts and enforced consistently under royal authority. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
In Norman England, legal proceedings were conducted in multi-purpose locations, such as:
Shire halls for shire courts.
Manorial halls for manorial courts.
Castles or churches for some royal or ecclesiastical cases.
These locations were not exclusively designated for legal proceedings but were used for various administrative, military, or religious functions. [Pollock_Maitland 2010], [Carpenter 2003]
The right to hold a market or fair was granted by the king or local lords through market charters. These charters specified the location, frequency, and rules of operation.
Example: The market charter of Winchester, which regulated the trade of goods in one of England’s major towns. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Agriculture in Norman England primarily relied on rain-fed farming, which was sufficient for the region's temperate climate. Crops like wheat, barley, and oats were grown without the need for extensive irrigation infrastructure.
Water management efforts in Norman England were concentrated on:
Building water mills for grinding grain, which involved controlling rivers and streams.
Draining marshes to reclaim farmland, particularly in regions like the Fens.
These projects were not irrigation systems as they did not involve transporting water to fields but rather managing existing water resources. [Chibnall 1996], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
Each manor typically maintained granaries or barns to store surplus grain and other produce.
Monasteries and churches maintained large granaries to store tithes collected from the community [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Villages and towns often maintained communal wells or springs that provided drinking water to residents. Castles and monasteries often included wells, cisterns, or other systems to secure drinking water for their inhabitants. [Chibnall 1996], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
Churches and Cathedrals:
Religious centers like parish churches and larger cathedrals were central communal spaces. They served not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, social gatherings, and sometimes even local governance. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Manorial granaries were common in rural areas for storing surplus grain collected as taxes or rents. These were often community-oriented structures supporting the manorial economy.
Water mills were essential for grinding grain into flour and were widespread across Norman England. These were often owned by lords or monasteries but served the local community.
[webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Tower of London (White Tower):
Constructed by William the Conqueror beginning in 1078, the White Tower was a symbol of Norman power and authority over England.
Norman cathedrals, such as Durham Cathedral, Winchester Cathedral, and Canterbury Cathedral. [Carpenter 2003], [Chibnall 1996]
Norman England lacked dedicated institutions such as libraries, museums, or observatories specifically constructed for the purpose of knowledge preservation, education, or scientific research. While monasteries served as repositories of knowledge, these were not standalone buildings constructed for knowledge purposes. [Brooke_Swaan 1974], [Chibnall 1996]
Public entertainment in this period was informal and typically occurred in open spaces, religious settings (e.g., feast days), or as part of traveling shows (e.g., troubadours or minstrels). [Carpenter 2003], [Chibnall 1996]
Monastic Guest Houses: Monasteries often maintained houses for hosting travelers, pilgrims, and dignitaries. These were distinct from residential structures and had a clear purpose.
In urban areas, merchant houses served as residences but also as centers for trade and storage. [Carpenter 2003]
A substantial network of Roman roads remained in use during the Norman period. These roads, such as Watling Street, Ermine Street, and Fosse Way, connected major settlements and were key for military, administrative, and economic purposes. [Margary 1973]
Examples of Known Ports:
London: A major riverine port on the Thames, crucial for trade and administration.
Southampton: A significant seaport used for international trade with Normandy and beyond.
Dover: A key port for cross-Channel trade and military campaigns. [Chibnall 1996], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
The Normans relied on navigable rivers (e.g., Thames, Severn, Humber) for transport and trade rather than building new canal systems. [Chibnall 1996], [Carpenter 2003]
Example: London Bridge, though originally of Roman origin, was maintained and rebuilt during the Norman period. [Chibnall 1996]
Example: Cornish tin mines were active during the Norman period, producing tin for trade and domestic use. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Chibnall 1996]
Earlier emporia like Hamwic and Lundenwic existed before the Norman period, reflecting short-lived and peripheral trade centers. Norman England’s trade infrastructure focused on established towns and marketplaces located within politically significant regions. [Chibnall 1996], [Carpenter 2003]
Examples:
Canterbury Cathedral: A key site for religious ceremonies and pilgrimages.
Westminster Abbey: Coronation site of Norman kings, including William the Conqueror in 1066. [Chibnall 1996]
Norman England had cathedrals, abbeys, and monasteries with monumental burial sites. These were often dissociated from settlements and served as prestigious places of burial for the elite, including royalty and clergy. [Chibnall 1996]
Battlefield Memorials:
Example: Battle Abbey, established on the site of the Battle of Hastings (1066). [Chibnall 1996]
Norman England produced a wide variety of written records: royal charters, legal documents, administrative records, and historical chronicles. [Chibnall 1996]
The writing system used in Norman England was based on the Latin alphabet, which is a phonetic alphabetic system. [Chibnall 1996]
Seals were widely used in Norman England to authenticate documents. [Chibnall 1996]
Norman England relied entirely on Latin script, a phonetic alphabetic writing system. [Chibnall 1996]
The earliest documented use of tally sticks in England dates to 1100, during the reign of Henry I. [Chibnall 1996], [Clanchy 1993]
Quaestiones Naturales is the earliest confirmed scientific work in Norman England during the period. [Burnett 1987]
Adelard of Bath. Adelard, active in the early 12th century, is recognized for translating significant scientific works from Arabic into Latin, thereby introducing them to Western Europe. Adelard of Bath's Quaestiones Naturales is a collection of scientific and philosophical questions that Adelard compiled after his travels in the Islamic world. One of his most influential contributions was the translation of Euclid's "Elements", a foundational text in mathematics. The translation of Euclid's Elements and other scientific texts by Adelard of Bath is dated to c. 1120. [webpage_Mathematical Treasure: Adelard’s...], [Chibnall 1996], [Burnett 1987]
Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109):
One of the most prominent authors of religious literature. His works include:
Cur Deus Homo ("Why God Became Man"), a theological exploration of the necessity of Christ’s incarnation and atonement. [Williams_Zalta_Nodelman 2024]
Philip de Thaun’s Computus:
A manual on the calendar, offering explanations on calculating dates, the etymology of the days of the week, and information on the zodiac. [Brooke_Swaan 1974], [Chibnall 1996]
Anselm of Canterbury’s Proslogion seeks to logically demonstrate the existence of God through the ontological argument, rather than relying on scripture or divine revelation. [Williams_Zalta_Nodelman 2024]
The Domesday Book systematically lists and categorizes: Landholdings. Resources such as livestock and arable land. Population, including serfs and freemen. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Originally a product of Anglo-Saxon England, the chronicle was continued under Norman rule. It documents key events, including William the Conqueror’s conquest and subsequent rule. [Ingram_Giles 1996], [Chibnall 1996]
The Exeter Book, also known as the Codex Exoniensis , is a large codex of Old English poetry, believed to have been produced in the late tenth century AD. [webpage_The Exeter Book]
Julius Work Calendar, created around 1020 at Canterbury Cathedral, is the earliest known calendar from England [Lacey_Danziger 1999]
The Norman economy primarily relied on coins as the medium of exchange. The Normans adopted and expanded the Anglo-Saxon monetary system, which used silver coins like pennies. [Carpenter 2003]
While coins were the dominant form of money, non-coined silver and gold were also used as forms of wealth and exchange in Norman England. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Norman England operated on a metal-based monetary system, relying primarily on silver coins, with supplemental use of non-coined silver and gold for larger transactions. [Clanchy 1993], [Carpenter 2003]
Before the Norman Conquest, Anglo-Saxon England had a well-developed monetary system based on silver pennies. The Normans continued and expanded this system after 1066, producing coins that were indigenously minted in England. [Carpenter 2003], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
Norman England was integrated into broader European trade networks, resulting in the circulation of foreign coins, particularly from France, Scandinavia, and Flanders. [Dyer 2002]
The Anglo-Saxon monetary economy was one of the most advanced in Europe, relying on coins rather than articles. This system continued and expanded under Norman rule. [Carpenter 2003], [Dyer 2002]
Norman England maintained centralized treasury rooms to store wealth, particularly in the form of coins, bullion, and valuable objects. Example: The Royal Treasury at Winchester, established as the central repository for the Crown’s wealth and used for military funding, governance, and royal expenditures. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Carpenter 2003]
Norman England had established systems of debt and credit, particularly in commercial, legal, and feudal contexts. Domesday Book (1086): Records debts owed to the Crown, indicating formal systems of obligation and repayment in Norman England. [Dyer 2002], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]
In Norman England, communication relied primarily on messengers rather than specialized buildings exclusively devoted to postal services. There is no evidence of postal stations as standalone or specialized facilities during this period. [Clanchy 1993]
In Norman England, communication systems were primarily designed to serve royal, governmental, and ecclesiastical needs. These systems did not extend to the general population or private citizens. Messages were typically carried by: Royal messengers: Employed by the king to communicate with nobles, local officials, and military commanders. Ecclesiastical networks: Monks and clergy facilitated communication within the Church hierarchy. [Clanchy 1993]
Norman England maintained a network of royal messengers and ecclesiastical couriers employed full-time to carry messages and documents. [Clanchy 1993], [Carpenter 2003]
The capital city was Winchester, later partially replaced by London during the Norman period.
The most outlying provincial area within the boundaries of Norman England was York in the north.
Winchester to York:
Approximate distance: 300 km
London to York:
Approximate distance: 320 km
Horseback:
The typical speed for long-distance travel on horseback was 50–70 km/day (31–43 miles/day).
By horse relay, the journey from Winchester/London to York would take approximately: 2–4 days [webpage_Distance from Winchester to York...], [Clanchy 1993]
Norman England inherited and adapted the Anglo-Saxon system of weights and measures, which were further standardized under Norman rule.
Pound (libra): The primary unit of weight, based on the Roman system, equivalent to 12 ounces (troy weight).
Mark: A unit often used for weighing precious metals (typically two-thirds of a pound).
Ounce (uncia): A smaller unit derived from the Roman system.
Stone (stán): Used for heavier goods, particularly in trade contexts. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Clanchy 1993]
Commonly referenced units in written records include: Sester (sextarius): A measure for liquids like ale or wine. Bushel (bucella): A measure for dry goods such as grain. Quarter: Equivalent to 8 bushels, commonly used in grain trade. Tun: A large measure for wine and ale, often associated with casks. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Clanchy 1993]
Commonly referenced time units include:
Hour (hora): Used for organizing religious activities, especially the canonical hours of prayer.
Moment (momentum): A subdivision of an hour, used in academic and liturgical contexts.
The canonical hours provided a structured time system:
Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, Compline, Matins, and Lauds. [Clanchy 1993], [Carpenter 2003]
In Norman England, measurement systems were primarily focused on weights, volumes, time, and length to support agriculture, trade, and religious practices. Advanced systems for measuring temperature, force, or astronomical phenomena were not documented during this period. [Clanchy 1993], [Brooke_Swaan 1974]
Commonly referenced units in written records include:
Foot (pes): The most basic unit, derived from Roman tradition.
Yard (gyrd): Typically used for measuring land and textiles; equivalent to 3 feet.
Rod (perch, pole): Used for surveying land; approximately 5.5 yards or 16.5 feet.
Mile (milia passuum): Used for long-distance measurements; approximately 1,609 meters. [webpage_Home | Domesday Book], [Clanchy 1993]
There is no documented evidence of geometrical measurement systems in Norman England during this period, such as the use of degrees or other systematic geometrical units. Land surveying and building construction relied on linear measurements (e.g., feet, yards, rods) rather than geometrical calculations involving angles or degrees. [Clanchy 1993], [Carpenter 2003]
Area measurement systems were used extensively in land division, taxation, and feudal obligations in Norman England.
Acre: The primary unit of area, defined as the amount of land plowed by a team of oxen in one day. It was standardized to 4,840 square yards.
Hide: A larger unit, often defined as the amount of land required to support one household, typically around 120 acres.
Virgate: A subdivision of the hide, equal to 30 acres. [Clanchy 1993], [webpage_Home | Domesday Book]