Home Region:  Levant (Southwest Asia)

Umayyad Caliphate

661 CE 750 CE
EQ 2020  sy_umayyad_cal / SyCalUm
Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
[continuity; Rashidun Caliphate] [continuity]   Update here

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.
750 CE 946 CE Abbasid Caliphate I (iq_abbasid_cal_1)    [continuity]

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  General Description  
The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. [1] It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. [2] The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.
Population and political organization
The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the ummah, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. [3] Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the ruler was ’surrounded by Arab chiefs’ with no other central administration. [4] At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials [5] dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). [4]
The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, [4] and maintained an office of the chancery [6] with officials called diwans to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. [7] In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, [8] the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (amel and amir). [9] In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, ’all the provincial officials were Christians’. [10] The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.
This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. [11] The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. [5] In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. [12]

[1]: (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2]: (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[4]: (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[5]: (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[6]: (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[7]: (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge.

[8]: (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn ’Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

[9]: (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. ’Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization’, in Encyclopedia Iranica V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii (accessed 2 April 2017).

[10]: (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[11]: (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[12]: (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal) was in:
 (661 CE 663 CE) Upper Egypt   /   Southern Mesopotamia
 (663 CE 664 CE) Upper Egypt   /   Southern Mesopotamia   /   Susiana
 (664 CE 670 CE) Upper Egypt   /   Southern Mesopotamia   /   Susiana   /   Yemeni Coastal Plain
 (670 CE 749 CE) Upper Egypt   /   Southern Mesopotamia   /   Susiana   /   Yemeni Coastal Plain   /   Kachi Plain
 (749 CE 750 CE) Yemeni Coastal Plain   /   Kachi Plain
Home NGA: Southern Mesopotamia

General Variables
Identity and Location Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Utm Zone 37 S 661 CE  750 CE
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Original Name Umayyad Caliphate 661 CE  750 CE
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Capital 661 CE  750 CE
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Capital 661 CE  750 CE
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Alternative Name 661 CE  750 CE
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Alternative Name 661 CE  750 CE
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Alternative Name 661 CE  750 CE
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Temporal Bounds Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Peak Years
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Duration
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Political and Cultural Relations Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Suprapolity Relations none 661 CE  750 CE
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Supracultural Entity Islam 661 CE  750 CE
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Succeeding Entity Abbasid Caliphate I 661 CE  750 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction 700 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity continuity 661 CE  750 CE
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Preceding Entity
continuity; Rashidun Caliphate [continuity]    Update here
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Succeeding Entity
750 CE 946 CE
Abbasid Caliphate I (iq_abbasid_cal_1)   [continuity] 
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Degree of Centralization 661 CE  750 CE
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Language Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Linguistic Family Afro-Asiatic 661 CE  750 CE
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Language 661 CE  750 CE
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Language 661 CE  750 CE
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Language 661 CE  750 CE
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Language 661 CE  750 CE
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Religion Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Religion Genus Islam 661 CE  750 CE
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Religion Family Sunni 661 CE  750 CE
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Religion Uncoded Undecided 661 CE  750 CE
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Alternate Religion Uncoded Undecided 661 CE  750 CE
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Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Population of the Largest Settlement 700 CE
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Polity Territory 700 CE
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Polity Population 700 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Settlement Hierarchy 661 CE  750 CE
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Religious Level 661 CE  750 CE
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Military Level 661 CE 705 CE
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Military Level 705 CE 750 CE
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Administrative Level 661 CE  750 CE
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Professions Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Professional Soldier 661 CE  750 CE
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Professional Priesthood 661 CE  750 CE
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Professional Priesthood 661 CE  750 CE
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Professional Military Officer 661 CE 682 CE
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Professional Military Officer 683 CE 750 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Specialized Government Building 661 CE  750 CE
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Merit Promotion 661 CE  750 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat 661 CE 685 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat 685 CE 750 CE
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Examination System 661 CE  750 CE
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Law Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Professional Lawyer 661 CE  750 CE
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Judge 661 CE  750 CE
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661 CE  750 CE
Court 661 CE  750 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Market 661 CE  750 CE
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Irrigation System 661 CE  750 CE
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Food Storage Site 661 CE  750 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System 661 CE  750 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Road 661 CE  750 CE
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Port 661 CE  750 CE
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Canal 661 CE  750 CE
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Bridge 661 CE  750 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Mines or Quarry Present Inferred 661 CE  750 CE
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Information / Writing System Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Written Record 661 CE  750 CE
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Script Present 661 CE  750 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing 661 CE  750 CE
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Nonwritten Record 661 CE  750 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing Absent 661 CE  750 CE
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Mnemonic Device 661 CE  750 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Scientific Literature 661 CE  750 CE
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Sacred Text 661 CE  750 CE
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Religious Literature 661 CE  750 CE
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Practical Literature 661 CE  750 CE
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Philosophy 661 CE  750 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification 661 CE  750 CE
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History 661 CE  750 CE
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Fiction 661 CE  750 CE
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Calendar 661 CE  750 CE
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Information / Money Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Token 661 CE  750 CE
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Precious Metal Present Inferred 661 CE  750 CE
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Paper Currency Absent 661 CE  750 CE
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Indigenous Coin 661 CE 699 CE
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Indigenous Coin 700 CE 750 CE
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Foreign Coin 661 CE  750 CE
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Article Present 661 CE  750 CE
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Information / Postal System Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Postal Station 661 CE  750 CE
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General Postal Service 661 CE  750 CE
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Courier 661 CE  750 CE
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Information / Measurement System Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Wooden Palisade 661 CE  750 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared 661 CE  750 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position Present Inferred 661 CE  750 CE
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Modern Fortification Absent 661 CE  750 CE
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Moat 661 CE  750 CE
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Fortified Camp Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Earth Rampart 661 CE  750 CE
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Ditch 661 CE  750 CE
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Complex Fortification 661 CE  750 CE
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Military use of Metals Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Steel 661 CE  750 CE
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Iron 661 CE  750 CE
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Copper Absent 661 CE  750 CE
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Bronze Present 661 CE  750 CE
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Projectiles Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Tension Siege Engine 661 CE  750 CE
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Sling Siege Engine 661 CE  750 CE
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Sling 661 CE  750 CE
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Self Bow 661 CE  750 CE
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Javelin Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Handheld Firearm 661 CE  750 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery 661 CE  750 CE
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Crossbow 661 CE  750 CE
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Composite Bow 661 CE  750 CE
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Atlatl 661 CE  750 CE
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Handheld weapons Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
War Club 661 CE  750 CE
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Sword 661 CE  750 CE
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Spear 661 CE  750 CE
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Polearm Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Animals used in warfare Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Horse 661 CE  750 CE
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Elephant Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Donkey 661 CE  750 CE
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Dog Unknown Suspected 661 CE  750 CE
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Camel 661 CE  750 CE
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Armor Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Wood Bark Etc 661 CE  750 CE
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Shield 661 CE  750 CE
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Scaled Armor 661 CE  750 CE
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Plate Armor Absent 661 CE  750 CE
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Limb Protection 661 CE  750 CE
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Leather Cloth 661 CE  750 CE
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Laminar Armor 661 CE  750 CE
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Helmet 661 CE  750 CE
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Chainmail 661 CE  750 CE
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Breastplate 661 CE  750 CE
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Naval technology Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Specialized Military Vessel 661 CE  750 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc Present Inferred 661 CE  750 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service 661 CE  750 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables
Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
Variable Coded Value / Certainty Tags Year(s) See More
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners Present 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites Present 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers 661 CE  750 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain 661 CE  750 CE
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Human Sacrifice Umayyad Caliphate (sy_umayyad_cal)
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Instability Data
Power Transitions