Home Region: Anatolia-Caucasus (Southwest Asia)

East Roman Empire

395 CE 631 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 tr_east_roman_emp / TrERom*

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

285 CE 394 CE Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

632 CE 866 CE Byzantine Empire I (tr_byzantine_emp_1) [continuity]

568 CE 751 CE Exarchate of Ravenna (it_ravenna_exarchate) [continuity]

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General Description

We begin our Eastern Roman Empire period in 395 CE, when it was permanently divided from what became the Western Roman Empire ^[1] ^[2] and end it in 631 CE as the Arab expansion and other developments led to a dramatic social transformations in Byzantium.
A phase of ’stagflation’ spanned the century between c. 450 and 541 CE, during which large estates became more influential, elites grew in number and formed mutually hostile factions, and ’sociopolitical instability increased’. ^[3] Matters were made worse by an outbreak of plague in 541 CE, and further usurpations and civil wars in the 7th century made the staggering empire a ripe target for the Arab conquests. ^[3]
Population and political organization
The Christian emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire was the chief lawmaker and military commander but not the most important religious official - instead, in the pagan tradition of Byzantine ceremony, he himself was treated as divine. ^[4] When he entered his consistorium (council), several curtains were raised to herald his arrival in the style of the eastern mystery religions. Meetings of the emperor’s council were infused with an atmosphere of sanctity, and the historian H. W. Haussig has pointed out that many important decisions were in fact ’discussed and settled outside this body’. ^[4] The most important religious official in Constantinople was the patriarch, who was chosen by the emperor; ^[5] the pope in Rome was the most important of the five patriarchs of the Roman Empire as a whole. ^[6]
Based in the palatial city of Constantinople, the emperor presided over a large professional bureaucracy that sought to intervene in most aspects of its citizens’ lives. Departing from the old pattern of relative Roman disinterest in the formal codification of Roman law, the East Roman emperors in the 395‒631 CE period twice brought together and promulgated official legal codes that were sourced from the empire’s Christian era (that is, since the time of Constantine the Great). The first of these was the Codex Theodosianus (439 CE), which was followed by the Codex Justinianus (534 CE). The Eastern Roman Empire also maintained a formal alliance with the Western Roman Empire, meaning that laws promulgated in one half of the empire had to be communicated to the other half and applied in both East and West. ^[7]
Below the god-emperor was the office of praetorian prefect, which came with considerable temporal powers. The governmental reforms of 395 CE gave this official ’unlimited jurisdiction’ on economic matters, ^[8] which he used to plan the Roman economy in a similar way to that of Egypt, which had been functioning well for six centuries. ^[8] The praetorian prefect also supervised the postal system and public works, managed the guilds, and ran the production of arms and other manufactured goods as a state monopoly. He was responsible for the annona (food distribution) to the cities and army, and was given license to control prices in the cities and order new industrial production. ^[8] The government had numerous other officials and departments, including a magister officiorum who, in addition to running the departments of protocol and foreign affairs and the palace guard, was also head of the ’political police (schola agentium in rebus)’. ^[9]
In the 6th century, desperate economic times led to the payment of high officials and soldiers in luxury clothes, while manufactured goods and food were used as currency. Coinage was still in circulation but the proportion used as payment for salaries shrank considerably. ^[10] The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. The baseline population of the empire was about 15 million, which peaked at 20 million when times were still good in 500 CE.
Fifth-century Constantinople was a monumental city of great splendour and wealth: it possessed five imperial palaces, six domus divinae Augustarum (’mansions of the divine Augustae’) belonging to empresses, three domus nobilissimae (mansions for the top nobility) and 4,388 domus mansions. ^[11] ^[12] The contemporary source (the 5th-century Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae) also records 322 streets with 153 private baths. ^[11] ^[13] Public buildings included squares, baths, underground cisterns, aqueducts, shops, and entertainment buildings including theatres and hippodromes. ^[11]
Gladiatorial combat was banned as part of Constantine’s programme of Christian moral reforms in 325 CE and disappeared sometime in the 5th century. The traditional Greek gymnasium, once a central institution in every Graeco-Roman city, where young men trained in athletics, had also fallen out of use but acrobatics was a profession and the nobility enjoyed various sports. ^[14] The most impressive large-scale public entertainments, provided by the state, were chariot races. These were held in Constantinople and other cities of the empire. ^[15] At some point during this era, the government decreed that drinking booths should close at 7 pm to reduce alcohol-related disorder. ^[16]

[1]: (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

[2]: (Barnwell 1992, 1) P. S. Barnwell. 1992. Emperor, Prefects, & Kings: The Roman West, 395‒565. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

[3]: (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. ’The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory’. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51.

[4]: (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson.

[5]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[6]: Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015, personal communication.

[7]: (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II 408-450. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[8]: (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson.

[9]: (Haussig 1971, 53) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson.

[10]: (Haussig 1971, 100) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson.

[11]: (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. ’Byzantine Civilization’, in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[12]: (Angelova 2015, 153-55) Diliana N. Angelova. 2015. Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

[13]: (Angelova 2015, 153-155) Diliana N Angelova. 2015. Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium. Oakland: University of California Press.

[14]: (Roueché 2008, 679) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. ’Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome’, in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[15]: (Roueché 2008, 680) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. ’Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome’, in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[16]: (Diehl 1923, 760) Charles Diehl. 1923. ’Byzantine Civilization’, in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

8 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

2 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

3 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Religion

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

3 Population of the Largest Settlement

3 Polity Territory

3 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

2 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

1 Fastest Individual Communication

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

17 Power Transition

Instability Events

123 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp) was in:
(395 CE 480 CE)	Paris Basin / Crete / Upper Egypt / Konya Plain
(480 CE 607 CE)	Crete / Upper Egypt / Konya Plain
(607 CE 632 CE)	Upper Egypt

Home NGA: Konya Plain

General Variables

Identity and Location East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	35 T Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Original Name	East Roman Empire Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Capital	Constantinople Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Byzantine Empire Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Eastern Roman Empire Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Imperium Romanum Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Basileia ton Rhomaion Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Empire of the Romans Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Late Antiquity Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Hellenistic late antiquity Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternative Name	Byzantine Empire Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Temporal Bounds East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	[527 CE ➜ 542 CE] Expert
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Duration	[395 CE ➜ 631 CE] Expert
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Political and Cultural Relations East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	it_ostrogoth_k nominal allegiance to tr_east_roman_emp	489 CE 554 CE
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Suprapolity Relations	tr_east_roman_emp alliance with uz_sogdiana_city_states	395 CE 631 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Christianity Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Byzantine Empire I Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[13,000,000 to 14,000,000] km² Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Succeeding Entity 632 CE 866 CE	Byzantine Empire I (tr_byzantine_emp_1) [continuity] Expert
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Succeeding Entity 568 CE 751 CE	Exarchate of Ravenna (it_ravenna_exarchate) [continuity]
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Preceding Entity 285 CE 394 CE	Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate) [continuity] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Language East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Language	Greek Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Religion East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Christianity Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Religion Family	Catholic Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Religion	Roman Catholic Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided Expert	395 CE 631 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	300,000 people	400 CE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	500,000 people	500 CE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	[250,000 to 150,000] people	600 CE
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Polity Territory	1,300,000 km²	400 CE
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Polity Territory	[1,300,000 to 1,500,000] km²	500 CE
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Polity Territory	[1,400,000 to 1,900,000] km²	600 CE
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Polity Population	15,000,000 people	400 CE
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Polity Population	20,000,000 people	500 CE
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Polity Population	[15,000,000 to 12,500,000] people	600 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	6	395 CE 631 CE
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Religious Level	7	395 CE 631 CE
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Military Level	9	395 CE 631 CE
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Administrative Level	8	395 CE 631 CE
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Professions East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Merit Promotion	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Examination System	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Law East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Judge	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Court	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Transport Infrastructure East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Port	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Canal	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Bridge	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Special-purpose Sites East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Information / Writing System East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Script	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Present Inferred	395 CE 631 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Philosophy	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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History	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Fiction	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Calendar	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Information / Money East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Present Disputed	395 CE 631 CE
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Token	Absent Disputed	395 CE 631 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Article	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Information / Postal System East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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General Postal Service	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Courier	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Fastest Individual Communication	- Undecided	395 CE 631 CE
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Information / Measurement System East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Moat	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Ditch	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Long Wall	56 km	395 CE 631 CE
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Military use of Metals East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Iron	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Copper	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Bronze	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Projectiles East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Sling	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Self Bow	Unknown	395 CE 631 CE
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Javelin	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Crossbow	Absent Inferred	395 CE 631 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Handheld weapons East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Sword	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Spear	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Polearm	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Dagger	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Animals used in warfare East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Elephant	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Donkey	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Dog	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Camel	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Armor East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Shield	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Scaled Armor	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent	395 CE 631 CE
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Limb Protection	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Laminar Armor	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Helmet	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Chainmail	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Breastplate	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Naval technology East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	395 CE 631 CE
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Human Sacrifice East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More