Home Region: Anatolia-Caucasus (Southwest Asia)

Roman Empire - Dominate

285 CE 394 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 tr_roman_dominate / TrRomDm

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

31 BCE 284 CE Roman Empire - Principate (it_roman_principate) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

395 CE 476 CE Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp) [continuity]

395 CE 631 CE East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp) [continuity]

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General Description

The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian ^[1] and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the ’Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450’. ^[2] The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. ^[3]
Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled ’Caesar’. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy (’rule of four’), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople’s original name).
Population and political organization
During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. ^[4] ^[5] The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome’s provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. ^[6] ^[7] ^[8]
When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with ’somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries’. ^[9] Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. ’He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ’s birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter’s death in Rome. ... Constantine’s successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.’ ^[10]
The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. ^[11]

[1]: (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

[2]: (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. ’The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory’. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51.

[3]: (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

[4]: (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley.

[5]: (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[6]: (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. The Governance of Rome. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff.

[7]: (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer "personalen Bürokratie" im langen dritten Jahrhundert. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

[8]: (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. ’The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective’, in State Power in Ancient China and Rome, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[9]: (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[10]: (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

[11]: (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

2 Capital

3 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

3 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

2 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

2 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

14 Power Transition

Instability Events

19 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate) was in:
(284 CE 394 CE)	Latium / Paris Basin / Crete / Upper Egypt / Konya Plain

Home NGA: Konya Plain

General Variables

Identity and Location Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	33 T	285 CE 394 CE
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Original Name	Roman Empire - Dominate	285 CE 394 CE
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Capital	Nicomedia	285 CE 394 CE
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Capital	Constantinople	285 CE 394 CE
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Alternative Name	Roman Empire	285 CE 394 CE
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Alternative Name	Eastern Empire	285 CE 394 CE
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Alternative Name	Byzantine Empire	285 CE 394 CE
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Temporal Bounds Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	394 CE
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Duration	[285 CE ➜ 394 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	vassalage to [---]	285 CE 394 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Greco-Roman	285 CE 394 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity	285 CE 394 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	17,000,000 km²	285 CE 394 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	285 CE 394 CE
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Succeeding Entity 395 CE 476 CE	Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp) [continuity]
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Preceding Entity 31 BCE 284 CE	Roman Empire - Principate (it_roman_principate) [continuity]
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Succeeding Entity 395 CE 631 CE	East Roman Empire (tr_east_roman_emp) [continuity] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	285 CE 394 CE
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Language Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	285 CE 394 CE
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Language	Latin	285 CE 394 CE
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Language	Greek	285 CE 394 CE
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Religion Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Roman State Religions	285 CE 394 CE
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Religion Family	Imperial Cult	285 CE 394 CE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	285 CE 394 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	800,000 people	285 CE 394 CE
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Polity Territory	[4,000,000 to 4,500,000] km²	285 CE 394 CE
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Polity Population	[40,000,000 to 70,000,000] people	300 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	7	285 CE 394 CE
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Religious Level	5	285 CE 394 CE
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Military Level	[6 to 8]	285 CE 394 CE
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Administrative Level	[8 to 9]	285 CE 394 CE
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Professions Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Merit Promotion	Absent Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Examination System	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Law Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Judge	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Court	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Port	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Canal	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Bridge	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Information / Writing System Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Script	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Philosophy	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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History	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Fiction	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Calendar	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Information / Money Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Present Disputed	285 CE 394 CE
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Token	Absent Disputed	285 CE 394 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Foreign Coin	Absent Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Article	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Information / Postal System Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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General Postal Service	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Courier	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Information / Measurement System Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown	285 CE 394 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Moat	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Ditch	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Long Wall	absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Military use of Metals Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Iron	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Copper	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Bronze	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Projectiles Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Sling	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Self Bow	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Javelin	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Crossbow	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Handheld weapons Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Sword	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Spear	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Polearm	Unknown	285 CE 394 CE
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Dagger	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Battle Axe	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Animals used in warfare Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Elephant	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Donkey	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	285 CE 394 CE
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Camel	Absent Uncertain	285 CE 394 CE
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Camel	Present Uncertain	285 CE 394 CE
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Armor Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Shield	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Scaled Armor	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Limb Protection	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown	285 CE 394 CE
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Helmet	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Chainmail	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Breastplate	Present Inferred	285 CE 394 CE
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Naval technology Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	285 CE 394 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Transitional (Absent -> Present)	285 CE 394 CE
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Human Sacrifice Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More