Home Region:  Western Europe (Europe)

La Tene B2-C1

D G SC WF HS EQ 2020  fr_la_tene_b2_c1 / FrTeneB

Preceding:
475 BCE 325 BCE La Tene A-B1 (fr_la_tene_a_b1)    [continuity]
Add one more here.

Succeeding:
175 BCE 27 BCE La Tene C2-D (fr_la_tene_c2_d)    [continuity]
Add one more here.

La Tene (B2-C1) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
The territory centred on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. [1] During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. [2] Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.
The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the populations comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul.

[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 105)

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
31 U  
Original Name:
La Tene B2-C1  
Capital:
NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI  
Alternative Name:
La Tene Gaul  
Celtic Gaul  
Gaul  
Iron Age Gaul  
Celtic Empire  
La Tene  
La Tene culture  
Galli  
Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
200 BCE  
Duration:
[325 BCE ➜ 175 BCE]  
Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
alliance with [---]  
Supracultural Entity:
La Tene  
Succeeding Entity:
La Tene C2-D  
Relationship to Preceding Entity:
continuity  
Preceding Entity:
Succeeding: La Tene C2-D (fr_la_tene_c2_d)    [continuity]  
Preceding:   La Tene A-B1 (fr_la_tene_a_b1)    [continuity]  
Degree of Centralization:
confederated state  
loose  
Language
Linguistic Family:
Celtic  
Language:
Gallic  
Religion
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
50 people 300 BCE
[1,500 to 3,000] people 200 BCE
Polity Territory:
1,250 km2 300 BCE
1,250 km2 200 BCE
Polity Population:
[70,000 to 80,000] people  
Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 4]  
Religious Level:
-  
Military Level:
4  
Administrative Level:
3  
Professions
Professional Soldier:
unknown  
Professional Priesthood:
inferred present  
Professional Military Officer:
unknown  
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
inferred present  
Merit Promotion:
unknown  
Full Time Bureaucrat:
unknown  
Examination System:
unknown  
Law
Professional Lawyer:
unknown  
Judge:
inferred absent  
Formal Legal Code:
inferred absent  
Court:
unknown  
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
inferred present  
Irrigation System:
unknown  
Food Storage Site:
unknown  
Drinking Water Supply System:
unknown  
Transport Infrastructure
Road:
inferred present  
Port:
inferred present  
Canal:
inferred absent  
Bridge:
present  
Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
inferred present  
Information / Writing System
Written Record:
inferred present  
Script:
inferred present  
Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
inferred present  
Nonwritten Record:
unknown  
Non Phonetic Writing:
unknown  
Mnemonic Device:
unknown  
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
inferred absent  
Sacred Text:
inferred absent  
Religious Literature:
inferred absent  
Practical Literature:
inferred absent  
Philosophy:
inferred absent  
Lists Tables and Classification:
unknown  
History:
inferred absent  
Fiction:
inferred absent  
Calendar:
inferred absent  
Information / Money
Paper Currency:
unknown  
Indigenous Coin:
present  
Foreign Coin:
inferred present  
Article:
present  
Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
unknown  
General Postal Service:
unknown  
Courier:
inferred present  
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
  Wooden Palisade:
present  
  Stone Walls Non Mortared:
unknown  
  Stone Walls Mortared:
unknown  
  Settlements in a Defensive Position:
unknown  
  Modern Fortification:
absent  
  Moat:
unknown  
  Fortified Camp:
present  
  Earth Rampart:
present  
  Ditch:
present  
  Complex Fortification:
unknown  
  Long Wall:
absent  
Military use of Metals
  Steel:
present  
  Iron:
present  
  Copper:
present  
  Bronze:
present  
Projectiles
  Tension Siege Engine:
absent  
  Sling Siege Engine:
absent  
  Sling:
inferred present  
  Self Bow:
present  
  Javelin:
present  
  Handheld Firearm:
absent  
  Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
absent  
  Crossbow:
absent  
  Composite Bow:
inferred absent  
  Atlatl:
absent  
Handheld weapons
  War Club:
inferred present  
  Sword:
present  
  Spear:
present  
  Polearm:
inferred present  
  Dagger:
present  
  Battle Axe:
present  
Animals used in warfare
  Horse:
present  
  Elephant:
absent  
  Donkey:
inferred absent  
  Dog:
unknown  
  Camel:
absent  
Armor
  Wood Bark Etc:
present  
  Shield:
present  
  Scaled Armor:
inferred absent  
  Plate Armor:
inferred absent  
  Limb Protection:
unknown  
  Leather Cloth:
present  
  Laminar Armor:
inferred absent  
  Helmet:
present  
  Chainmail:
present  
  Breastplate:
present  
Naval technology
  Specialized Military Vessel:
unknown  
  Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
present  
  Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
unknown  
Religion Tolerance Nothing coded yet.
Human Sacrifice Nothing coded yet.
Crisis Consequences Nothing coded yet.
Power Transitions Nothing coded yet.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range La Tene B2-C1 (fr_la_tene_b2_c1) was in:
 (324 BCE 175 BCE)   Paris Basin
Home NGA: Paris Basin

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
31 U

Original Name:
La Tene B2-C1

Capital:
NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI

No capitals. Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements.


Alternative Name:
La Tene Gaul

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
Celtic Gaul

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
Gaul

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
Iron Age Gaul

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
Celtic Empire

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
La Tene

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
La Tene culture

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)

Alternative Name:
Galli

Galli
Latin term used by Romans from the 4th Century CE. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 15)


Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
200 BCE

Maximum expansion of the Celtic tribes occurred in the 3rd Century BCE. [1] Urbanisation, centralisation and economic activity increased throughout period so peak date at the end.

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 14)


Duration:
[325 BCE ➜ 175 BCE]



Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
alliance with [---]

Tribes formed alliances with other tribes.
450-250 BCE Migration Period: "The migrations that these warrior societies undertook over the next 200 years effectively broke the bond between tribe and its ancestral territory. The institution of kingship declined among the continental Celts throughout the Migration Period as tribes split up and coalesced into new communities." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 61)


Supracultural Entity:
La Tene

Succeeding Entity:
La Tene C2-D

Relationship to Preceding Entity:
continuity

Preceding Entity:
La Tene B2-C1 [fr_la_tene_b2_c1] ---> La Tene C2-D [fr_la_tene_c2_d]
Preceding Entity:
La Tene A-B1 [fr_la_tene_a_b1] ---> La Tene B2-C1 [fr_la_tene_b2_c1]

Degree of Centralization:
confederated state

In this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but did not join together within a unified centralized polity.
Confederations of tribes joined together for battles [1] and "federal" institutions are known from one such instance - a site for war trophies. [2]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns [3] so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50. [3]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 186)

[3]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)

Degree of Centralization:
loose

In this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but did not join together within a unified centralized polity.
Confederations of tribes joined together for battles [1] and "federal" institutions are known from one such instance - a site for war trophies. [2]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns [3] so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50. [3]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 186)

[3]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)


Language
Linguistic Family:
Celtic

Language:
Gallic

[1]

[1]: (Collis 2003, 45)


Religion

Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
50 people
300 BCE

50: 300 BCEThe distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated. No large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50. [1]
200 BCE, evidence for population expansion and increased urbanism
However, there is evidence for population expansion in this period: from Celtic emigrations, from the warriors serving as mercenaries for Mediterranean states (a trend which declined c200 BCE) and the notable external military activity, such as on Etruscans, Rome (387 BCE) and Greece (Delphi 279-278 BCE). [1]
In the 300-200 period there also is evidence for increased urbanisation from increased economic activity (universal coinage), long-distance trade (bridge building), and the rise of an urban aristocrat class who formed and could maintain a standing cavalry corps. [2] [3]
Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people [4] Evidence from onsite battle indicates date 3rd-2nd centuries BCE. [5] -- however, Bavaria is quite far from NGA zone. Using lower limit of this estimate as upper limit for our estimate.
10,000
late Iron Age. [6]

[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[3]: (Wells 1999, 54)

[4]: (Wells 1999, 31)

[5]: (Wells 1999, 30)

[6]: (McIntosh 2009, 349)

Population of the Largest Settlement:
[1,500 to 3,000] people
200 BCE

50: 300 BCEThe distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated. No large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50. [1]
200 BCE, evidence for population expansion and increased urbanism
However, there is evidence for population expansion in this period: from Celtic emigrations, from the warriors serving as mercenaries for Mediterranean states (a trend which declined c200 BCE) and the notable external military activity, such as on Etruscans, Rome (387 BCE) and Greece (Delphi 279-278 BCE). [1]
In the 300-200 period there also is evidence for increased urbanisation from increased economic activity (universal coinage), long-distance trade (bridge building), and the rise of an urban aristocrat class who formed and could maintain a standing cavalry corps. [2] [3]
Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people [4] Evidence from onsite battle indicates date 3rd-2nd centuries BCE. [5] -- however, Bavaria is quite far from NGA zone. Using lower limit of this estimate as upper limit for our estimate.
10,000
late Iron Age. [6]

[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[3]: (Wells 1999, 54)

[4]: (Wells 1999, 31)

[5]: (Wells 1999, 30)

[6]: (McIntosh 2009, 349)


Polity Territory:
1,250 km2
300 BCE

in squared kilometers Around 300 and 200 BCE, politically independent polities in the northern alpine region (which includes central France [1] ) had a radius of about 20 km, which gives an area of about 1,250 sq kilometers. [2]
[2]
"the disruption of the south-north trade networks in the fourth-third centuries BC brought about a return to the scale of integration which had existed from the ninth BC onwards." [3] ("The economic foundations put in place in the ninth and eighth centuries BC were ... incapable of supporting a political scale of integration greater than tens of square kilometers." [3] )

[1]: (Brun 2007, 380)

[2]: (Brun 2007, 381)

[3]: (Brun 1995, 24)

Polity Territory:
1,250 km2
200 BCE

in squared kilometers Around 300 and 200 BCE, politically independent polities in the northern alpine region (which includes central France [1] ) had a radius of about 20 km, which gives an area of about 1,250 sq kilometers. [2]
[2]
"the disruption of the south-north trade networks in the fourth-third centuries BC brought about a return to the scale of integration which had existed from the ninth BC onwards." [3] ("The economic foundations put in place in the ninth and eighth centuries BC were ... incapable of supporting a political scale of integration greater than tens of square kilometers." [3] )

[1]: (Brun 2007, 380)

[2]: (Brun 2007, 381)

[3]: (Brun 1995, 24)


Polity Population:
[70,000 to 80,000] people

Average polity size.
368,000/5 = 73,600
Some idea for scale of tribal populations comes from Caesar at the time of his invasion of Gaul. Helvetii, Tulingi, Latobrigi, Rauraci and Boii wanted to move from Switzerland to South West Gaul. According to Caesar (c50 BCE) there were 368,000 in total. Another tribe, the Suebi numbered 120,000 people. [1]

[1]: (Collis 2003, 107)


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 4]

levels.
1. Implied degree of urbanisation by the mid-3rd century (actual fortification occurred later?)
Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps. Cavalry replaced war-chariots by 250 BCE. [1]
"the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C." [2]
"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC." [3]
"All oppida are characterized by household units composed of individual houses plus ancillary structures (granary, cellar, pit) centered around a palisaded courtyard. This household cluster evokes, in reduced form, contemporary farms. Thus, the traditional architectural organization was still the structural basis of the later settlements." [4]
2. HillfortSW France, Champagne [5]
or
2. TownSeveral hundred inhabitants. [6]
3. Hamlets and villagesVast majority of population in temperate Europe. 20-100 people [6]
Hamlets < 50 population [7]
4. Farmstead"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)" [6]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[2]: (Wells 1999, 54)

[3]: (Brun 1995, 16)

[4]: (Brun 1995, 18)

[5]: (Collis 2003, 145)

[6]: (Wells 1999, 57)

[7]: (Wells 1999, 45)


Religious Level:
-

Military Level:
4

levels.
1. King
In battle, confederations of tribes. [1]
2. Celtic generalsbecame mercenaries for Carthage, Rome, Greece. [2]
Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps. [3] This would have had a leader.
3. Chieftainspaid in gold staters or silver pieces. [4]
Are these people the same as the "generals"?
4. Individual soldier
Military: "Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms." [5]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 85)

[3]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[4]: (Kruta 2004, 100)

[5]: (Allen 2007, 123)


Administrative Level:
3

levels.
1. King
Had a retinue of military/legal assistants
2. Tribal chiefTribes
3. Clan chiefPagus (Clan) / Family group [1]
Galatians, who migrated to Asia minor 279 BCE, also provide a possible insight into Gaulish social structure as they were closely observed by the Greeks. Chieftains (called a tetrach by the Greeks) lead each of the tribes each of which were divided into clans. Supra-tribal level of cooperation: the clans of all the tribes together appointed 300 senators "to attend an annual assembly at a shrine." However they were rarely unified and eventually the chieftains became kings. The chieftains "were assisted by three military advisers and a judge." [2]
"At its lowest level, Celtic society was made up of extended families or clans that were grouped together to form territorially based tribes." If Ireland is representative, 3 levels of hierarchy: 1. family unit = fine. 2. five family units = clan. A number of clans in the same region = 3. tuath (tribe) ruled by a king." [3]

[1]: (Collis 2003, 195)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 79-80)

[3]: (Allen 2007, 62)


Professions
Professional Soldier:
unknown

Professional Priesthood:
present

Druids.


Professional Military Officer:
unknown

Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
present

Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE). Evidence for minting of coins [1]

[1]: (Wells 1999, 30)


Merit Promotion:
unknown

Full Time Bureaucrat:
unknown

Examination System:
unknown

Law
Professional Lawyer:
unknown

Judge:
absent

Druids were judges (according to Caesar) [1] , which suggests that this was not a full-time occupation.

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 185)


Formal Legal Code:
absent

Honour price was "the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon custom of wergild, the amount payable by a third party in the event of unlawful injury or death." "The concept of honour price was fundamental to the legal system of the Celts. It dictated the conduct of all judicial cases, since the value of an individual’s oath or evidence was determined by his honour price. To bring a lawsuit against someone with a higher honour price required the intervention of a patron of higher rank, creating an environment in which the support of the richest and most influential members of the elite was constantly sought after." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 65)


Court:
unknown

Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
present

"The late Hallstatt hillforts were probably functionally analogous to early Irish sites, such as Tara or Tailtiu, which hosted the regional "fairs" or oenachs. These gatherings served more than the secular purpose of exchanging goods." [1]

[1]: (Arnold 1995, 47)


Irrigation System:
unknown

Food Storage Site:
unknown

"Silo" present during this time period. [1] Does this refer to food storage?

[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)


Drinking Water Supply System:
unknown

Transport Infrastructure
Road:
present

Roads known as present close to Paris Basin region from 250 BCE. 400-250 BCE period unknown. Previously present 475-400 BCE. [1] Cities organised in network of oppida (fortified urban settlements) which were linked by well-defined routes." [2]

[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 115)


Port:
present

Brittany had trading links to Ireland and Britain. [1] c600 BCE the Phoencians had founded trading colony/port at Massilia. [2] However, this wasn’t directly owned/controlled by the Gauls. Port at Geneva. Note: was not a seaport

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 38)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 35)


Canal:
absent

inferred from lack of mention in sources related to this infatructure


Bridge:
present

Lake Neuchatel trade-related bridge found, carbon-dated 251 BCE [1] Another bridge at found at Cornaux. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 25)


Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
present

Information / Writing System
Written Record:
present

Evidence of inscriptions from Gallic settlements in Northern Italy. [1] "Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 30)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Script:
present

Evidence of inscriptions from Gallic settlements in Northern Italy. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 30)


Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
present

Possible use of the Greek alphabet? "Caesar remarks that documents captured from the Helvetii were written in Greek characters, and until the conquest of Gaul all Celtic coins were inscribed in Greek, but changed to Latin script around 50 BC." [1]

[1]: (Collis 1984, 145)


Nonwritten Record:
unknown

Not mentioned by sources for this period. Stone circle known in region close to Paris Basin dating to 475-400 BCE. [1]

[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)


Non Phonetic Writing:
unknown

There is evidence for a script, but it is not known whether it was phonetic or non-phonetic. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 30)


Mnemonic Device:
unknown

Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Sacred Text:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Religious Literature:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Practical Literature:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Philosophy:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Lists Tables and Classification:
unknown

History:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Fiction:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Calendar:
absent

"Druids did not commit their philosophy to writing, no record exists to explain how the Celts perceived their world." [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 100)


Information / Money
Paper Currency:
unknown

Indigenous Coin:
present

monnaie gauloise [1] Coinage universal from 3rd century BCE: "the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C., and the designs were based on Greek prototypes." [2] Idea of coinage introduced by mercenaries returning from Greece. [2] Original usage may have been to pay mercenaries. Cheiftains were paid in gold staters or silver pieces; Design of coin decided in each locale. Magistrates had power to issue coins. [3] ; Gold coin found - origin Mediomatrices of NW Gaul? [4] ; Gold stater from Gaulish city of Parisii [5] ; Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria, 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, evidence of monetary economy. Minted gold, silver and bronze coins. [6]

[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)

[2]: (Wells 1999, 54)

[3]: (Kruta 2004, 100)

[4]: (Kruta 2004, 186)

[5]: (Kruta 2004, 185)

[6]: (Wells 1999, 30)


Foreign Coin:
present

Foreign coins in circulation due to payments made to Celtic mercenaries who fought for Carthage, Greece and Rome. Particularly large and diverse hoard found in Moravia. [1] No Greek, Roman or Other coins currently present on chronocarto database until 250-175 BCE period. [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 85)

[2]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)


Article:
present

Barter economy before coinage. [1] Coral was considered very high value. "Coral route" from Campania through Alps then on to Champagne or Bohemia. [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 100)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 72)


Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
unknown

General Postal Service:
unknown

Courier:
present

Level of development high enough to mint coins, likely high enough for full-time messengers.


Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Wooden Palisade:
present

Stone Walls Non Mortared:
unknown

[1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 102)


Stone Walls Mortared:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Settlements in a Defensive Position:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Modern Fortification:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Moat:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Fortified Camp:
present

"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC." [1]

[1]: (Brun 1995, 16)


Earth Rampart:
present

[1] Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age. Earth wall 7 KM length enclosed 380 ha [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 102)

[2]: (Wells 1999, 28)


Ditch:
present

Vieille Toulouse, a settlement which started to develop more extensively in the late 3rd century BCE, had a ditch. [1]

[1]: (http://www.oppida.org/page.php?lg=fr&rub=00&id_oppidum=165)


Complex Fortification:
unknown

Oppida settlement at Manching near Ingolstadt in Bavaria had double ring of dry-stone wall ramparts filled with earth. [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 102)


Long Wall:
absent

Military use of Metals
Steel:
present

"The Hallstatt civilisation knew case-hardening only, bu the Celts had various methods of ’steeling’ such as the false-damascening which consisted in welding harder and weaker strips together. Some of the natural steel quite free of of sulphur and phosphorus must have been difficult to forge as it was liable to form cracks." [1] "The general impression of the Celtic swords, here covering a period from roughly 650 to 100 B.C., is that the blade was normally manufactured from a single iron bar of no particularly good quality. The same material could as well have been utilized for nails. ... Common to all the Celtic swords is the extensive coldwork that has taken place. ... evidently the finishing part of the blacksmith’s usual hotwork, only that he continued hammering in the temperature range 800-600C ... Significant coldwork at room temperature must also have taken place, since the metal is work-hardened to high hardness and displays slip lines and Neumann bands. ... The 24 swords do not show any metallurgical development with time, except for one, the oldest, from Hallstatt. That one seems to be a rather mediocre sword based on an improper ore and an inexperienced blacksmith. ... three of them ... of superior quality, being pearlitic-ferritic and probably representing the famous Noric steel. If this argument, based on slag composition and structure - and an inscription on No. 510 - holds true, the manufacture of Noric steel began as early as 300 B.C." [2] "Almost all the Celtic swords here examined were of good quality and would undoubtedly have yielded good service." [3] Not sure of the reason for the contradiction between "no particularly good quality" and "of good quality" but we have the 300 BCE date for Noric steel.

[1]: (Forbes 1950, 464) Robert James Forbes. 1950. Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists. E J BRILL. Leiden.

[2]: (Buchwald 2005, 122-124) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.

[3]: (Buchwald 2005, 125-127) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.


Iron:
present

Diodorus Siculus mentions iron breastplates. [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 115)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)


Copper:
present

"Bronze Italo-Celtic helmet with elaborate crest fitting for plumes or feathers, mid-4th century BC." [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 41)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)


Bronze:
present

"Bronze Italo-Celtic helmet with elaborate crest fitting for plumes or feathers, mid-4th century BC." [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 41)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)


Projectiles
Tension Siege Engine:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Sling Siege Engine:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Sling:
present

Stockpiles of sling stones found at hillforts in Britain. Archers may have been used to defend fortified sites. [1]

[1]: (Allen 2007, 117-118)


Self Bow:
present

Iron arrowheads. Quiver. [1]

[1]: (Collis 2003, 136)


Javelin:
present

[1] "The Greek writer Strabo commented that the Celtic warrior carried two types of spear: a larger, heavier one for thrusting, and a smaller, lighter javelin that could be thrown and used at close quarters." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 58)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 116)


Handheld Firearm:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Crossbow:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Composite Bow:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Atlatl:
absent

Spears are described, but not spear-throwers.


Handheld weapons
War Club:
present

Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.


Sword:
present

[1] Broadsword (Bohemia). [2] Long sword, curved broardsword. [3] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [4]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 4)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 38)

[3]: (Kruta 2004, 58)

[4]: (Allen 2007, 115)


Spear:
present

[1] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [2] "The Greek writer Strabo commented that the Celtic warrior carried two types of spear: a larger, heavier one for thrusting, and a smaller, lighter javelin that could be thrown and used at close quarters." [3]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 58)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 115)

[3]: (Allen 2007, 116)


Polearm:
present

Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.


Dagger:
present

Iron dagger [1] Iron dagger "from a Halstatt tomb, mid-5th century BC" [2]

[1]: (Collis 2003, 136)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 32)


Battle Axe:
present

Animals used in warfare
Horse:
present

Two-wheeled war chariot. [1] Cavalry. [2] Cavalry replaced war-chariots from 250 BCE. [3] War chariots abandoned in Gaul 200-100 BCE. [4] Pulled a two-wheeled chariot which replaced the Hallstatt era four-wheeled wagon. [5]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 38, 52)

[2]: (Kruta 2004, 60)

[3]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[4]: (Kruta 2004, 198)

[5]: (Allen 2007, 32)


Elephant:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Donkey:
absent

"There seems no trace of the use of donkeys and mules before contact with the Italian peninsula." [1]

[1]: (Ellis 1998, 109) Peter Berresford Ellis. 1998. The ancient world of the Celts. Constable.


Dog:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Camel:
absent

Not mentioned in the literature.


Armor
Wood Bark Etc:
present

Wooden shield carbon dated to 229 BCE (Lake Neuchatel). [1] "Celtic shields were generally oval in shape or sometimes and elongated hexagon. They were made of thin planks of oak or lime wood covered in leather." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 25)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 118)


Shield:
present

[1] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 4)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 115)


Scaled Armor:
absent

The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]

[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)


Plate Armor:
absent

Warrior culture: burials with iron swords, helmets, spears, shields. [1] The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [2]

[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)

[2]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)


Limb Protection:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Leather Cloth:
present

Glauberg, Germany c400 BCE. [1] Warrior statue from Glauburg shows armor "reminiscent of Greek or Etruscan styles." [2] The photograph shows an oval-shaped shield and what appears to be a fabric?/leather body armor.

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 60)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 20)


Laminar Armor:
absent

The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]

[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)


Helmet:
present

Glauberg, Germany c400 BCE. [1] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 60)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 115)


Chainmail:
present

Coat of mail c100 BCE or before. [1] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [2]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 115)


Breastplate:
present

Light breastplate c100 BCE or before. [1] "Bronze statuette of a warrior from Liechtenstein dated to the 5th century BC. Note the Greek/Etruscan-style cuirass." [2] Diodorus Siculus mentions iron breastplates. [3]
Glauberg, Germany c400 BCE. [4]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 110)

[2]: (Allen 2007, 24)

[3]: (Allen 2007, 115)

[4]: (Kruta 2004, 60)


Naval technology
Specialized Military Vessel:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.


Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
present

Port at Geneva [1]

[1]: (Kruta 2004, 35?)


Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
unknown

Not mentioned in the literature.



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
- Nothing coded yet.
- Nothing coded yet.
Power Transitions
- Nothing coded yet.