La Tene (B2-C1) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
The territory centred on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories.
[1]
During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity.
[2]
Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.
The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the populations comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul.
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 105)
| 31 U |
| La Tene B2-C1 |
| None (Absent Capital) |
| La Tene Gaul | |
| Celtic Gaul | |
| Gaul | |
| Iron Age Gaul | |
| Celtic Empire | |
| La Tene | |
| La Tene culture | |
| Galli |
| alliance with [---] |
| La Tene |
| La Tene C2-D |
| continuity |
| Succeeding: La Tene C2-D (fr_la_tene_c2_d) [continuity] | |
| Preceding: La Tene A-B1 (fr_la_tene_a_b1) [continuity] |
| confederated state | |
| loose |
| 50 people | 300 BCE |
| [1,500 to 3,000] people | 200 BCE |
| 1,250 km2 | 300 BCE |
| 1,250 km2 | 200 BCE |
| [70,000 to 80,000] people |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| Year Range | La Tene B2-C1 (fr_la_tene_b2_c1) was in: |
|---|---|
| (324 BCE 175 BCE) | Paris Basin |
No capitals. Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements.
Tribes formed alliances with other tribes.
450-250 BCE Migration Period: "The migrations that these warrior societies undertook over the next 200 years effectively broke the bond between tribe and its ancestral territory. The institution of kingship declined among the continental Celts throughout the Migration Period as tribes split up and coalesced into new communities."
[1]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 61)
In this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but did not join together within a unified centralized polity.
Confederations of tribes joined together for battles
[1]
and "federal" institutions are known from one such instance - a site for war trophies.
[2]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[3]
so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[3]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 186)
[3]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
In this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but did not join together within a unified centralized polity.
Confederations of tribes joined together for battles
[1]
and "federal" institutions are known from one such instance - a site for war trophies.
[2]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[3]
so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[3]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 186)
[3]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
50: 300 BCEThe distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated. No large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[1]
200 BCE, evidence for population expansion and increased urbanism
However, there is evidence for population expansion in this period: from Celtic emigrations, from the warriors serving as mercenaries for Mediterranean states (a trend which declined c200 BCE) and the notable external military activity, such as on Etruscans, Rome (387 BCE) and Greece (Delphi 279-278 BCE).
[1]
In the 300-200 period there also is evidence for increased urbanisation from increased economic activity (universal coinage), long-distance trade (bridge building), and the rise of an urban aristocrat class who formed and could maintain a standing cavalry corps.
[2]
[3]
Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people
[4]
Evidence from onsite battle indicates date 3rd-2nd centuries BCE.
[5]
-- however, Bavaria is quite far from NGA zone. Using lower limit of this estimate as upper limit for our estimate.
10,000
late Iron Age.
[6]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[3]: (Wells 1999, 54)
[4]: (Wells 1999, 31)
[5]: (Wells 1999, 30)
[6]: (McIntosh 2009, 349)
50: 300 BCEThe distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated. No large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[1]
200 BCE, evidence for population expansion and increased urbanism
However, there is evidence for population expansion in this period: from Celtic emigrations, from the warriors serving as mercenaries for Mediterranean states (a trend which declined c200 BCE) and the notable external military activity, such as on Etruscans, Rome (387 BCE) and Greece (Delphi 279-278 BCE).
[1]
In the 300-200 period there also is evidence for increased urbanisation from increased economic activity (universal coinage), long-distance trade (bridge building), and the rise of an urban aristocrat class who formed and could maintain a standing cavalry corps.
[2]
[3]
Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people
[4]
Evidence from onsite battle indicates date 3rd-2nd centuries BCE.
[5]
-- however, Bavaria is quite far from NGA zone. Using lower limit of this estimate as upper limit for our estimate.
10,000
late Iron Age.
[6]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[3]: (Wells 1999, 54)
[4]: (Wells 1999, 31)
[5]: (Wells 1999, 30)
[6]: (McIntosh 2009, 349)
in squared kilometers Around 300 and 200 BCE, politically independent polities in the northern alpine region (which includes central France
[1]
) had a radius of about 20 km, which gives an area of about 1,250 sq kilometers.
[2]
[2]
"the disruption of the south-north trade networks in the fourth-third centuries BC brought about a return to the scale of integration which had existed from the ninth BC onwards."
[3]
("The economic foundations put in place in the ninth and eighth centuries BC were ... incapable of supporting a political scale of integration greater than tens of square kilometers."
[3]
)
[1]: (Brun 2007, 380)
[2]: (Brun 2007, 381)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 24)
in squared kilometers Around 300 and 200 BCE, politically independent polities in the northern alpine region (which includes central France
[1]
) had a radius of about 20 km, which gives an area of about 1,250 sq kilometers.
[2]
[2]
"the disruption of the south-north trade networks in the fourth-third centuries BC brought about a return to the scale of integration which had existed from the ninth BC onwards."
[3]
("The economic foundations put in place in the ninth and eighth centuries BC were ... incapable of supporting a political scale of integration greater than tens of square kilometers."
[3]
)
[1]: (Brun 2007, 380)
[2]: (Brun 2007, 381)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 24)
Average polity size.
368,000/5 = 73,600
Some idea for scale of tribal populations comes from Caesar at the time of his invasion of Gaul. Helvetii, Tulingi, Latobrigi, Rauraci and Boii wanted to move from Switzerland to South West Gaul. According to Caesar (c50 BCE) there were 368,000 in total. Another tribe, the Suebi numbered 120,000 people.
[1]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 107)
levels.
1. Implied degree of urbanisation by the mid-3rd century (actual fortification occurred later?)
Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps. Cavalry replaced war-chariots by 250 BCE.
[1]
"the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C."
[2]
"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC."
[3]
"All oppida are characterized by household units composed of individual houses plus ancillary structures (granary, cellar, pit) centered around a palisaded courtyard. This household cluster evokes, in reduced form, contemporary farms. Thus, the traditional architectural organization was still the structural basis of the later settlements."
[4]
2. HillfortSW France, Champagne
[5]
or
2. TownSeveral hundred inhabitants.
[6]
3. Hamlets and villagesVast majority of population in temperate Europe. 20-100 people
[6]
Hamlets < 50 population
[7]
4. Farmstead"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)"
[6]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 54)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 16)
[4]: (Brun 1995, 18)
[5]: (Collis 2003, 145)
[6]: (Wells 1999, 57)
[7]: (Wells 1999, 45)
levels.
1. King
In battle, confederations of tribes.
[1]
2. Celtic generalsbecame mercenaries for Carthage, Rome, Greece.
[2]
Urban aristocrats formed and maintained a standing cavalry corps.
[3]
This would have had a leader.
3. Chieftainspaid in gold staters or silver pieces.
[4]
Are these people the same as the "generals"?
4. Individual soldier
Military: "Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms."
[5]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 105)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 85)
[3]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[4]: (Kruta 2004, 100)
[5]: (Allen 2007, 123)
levels.
1. King
Had a retinue of military/legal assistants
2. Tribal chiefTribes
3. Clan chiefPagus (Clan) / Family group
[1]
Galatians, who migrated to Asia minor 279 BCE, also provide a possible insight into Gaulish social structure as they were closely observed by the Greeks. Chieftains (called a tetrach by the Greeks) lead each of the tribes each of which were divided into clans. Supra-tribal level of cooperation: the clans of all the tribes together appointed 300 senators "to attend an annual assembly at a shrine." However they were rarely unified and eventually the chieftains became kings. The chieftains "were assisted by three military advisers and a judge."
[2]
"At its lowest level, Celtic society was made up of extended families or clans that were grouped together to form territorially based tribes." If Ireland is representative, 3 levels of hierarchy: 1. family unit = fine. 2. five family units = clan. A number of clans in the same region = 3. tuath (tribe) ruled by a king."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 195)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 79-80)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 62)
Honour price was "the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon custom of wergild, the amount payable by a third party in the event of unlawful injury or death." "The concept of honour price was fundamental to the legal system of the Celts. It dictated the conduct of all judicial cases, since the value of an individual’s oath or evidence was determined by his honour price. To bring a lawsuit against someone with a higher honour price required the intervention of a patron of higher rank, creating an environment in which the support of the richest and most influential members of the elite was constantly sought after." [1]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 65)
"Silo" present during this time period. [1] Does this refer to food storage?
Roads known as present close to Paris Basin region from 250 BCE. 400-250 BCE period unknown. Previously present 475-400 BCE. [1] Cities organised in network of oppida (fortified urban settlements) which were linked by well-defined routes." [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 115)
inferred from lack of mention in sources related to this infatructure
Not mentioned by sources for this period. Stone circle known in region close to Paris Basin dating to 475-400 BCE. [1]
monnaie gauloise [1] Coinage universal from 3rd century BCE: "the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C., and the designs were based on Greek prototypes." [2] Idea of coinage introduced by mercenaries returning from Greece. [2] Original usage may have been to pay mercenaries. Cheiftains were paid in gold staters or silver pieces; Design of coin decided in each locale. Magistrates had power to issue coins. [3] ; Gold coin found - origin Mediomatrices of NW Gaul? [4] ; Gold stater from Gaulish city of Parisii [5] ; Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria, 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, evidence of monetary economy. Minted gold, silver and bronze coins. [6]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 54)
[3]: (Kruta 2004, 100)
[4]: (Kruta 2004, 186)
[5]: (Kruta 2004, 185)
[6]: (Wells 1999, 30)
Level of development high enough to mint coins, likely high enough for full-time messengers.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Vieille Toulouse, a settlement which started to develop more extensively in the late 3rd century BCE, had a ditch. [1]
[1]: (http://www.oppida.org/page.php?lg=fr&rub=00&id_oppidum=165)
"The Hallstatt civilisation knew case-hardening only, bu the Celts had various methods of ’steeling’ such as the false-damascening which consisted in welding harder and weaker strips together. Some of the natural steel quite free of of sulphur and phosphorus must have been difficult to forge as it was liable to form cracks." [1] "The general impression of the Celtic swords, here covering a period from roughly 650 to 100 B.C., is that the blade was normally manufactured from a single iron bar of no particularly good quality. The same material could as well have been utilized for nails. ... Common to all the Celtic swords is the extensive coldwork that has taken place. ... evidently the finishing part of the blacksmith’s usual hotwork, only that he continued hammering in the temperature range 800-600C ... Significant coldwork at room temperature must also have taken place, since the metal is work-hardened to high hardness and displays slip lines and Neumann bands. ... The 24 swords do not show any metallurgical development with time, except for one, the oldest, from Hallstatt. That one seems to be a rather mediocre sword based on an improper ore and an inexperienced blacksmith. ... three of them ... of superior quality, being pearlitic-ferritic and probably representing the famous Noric steel. If this argument, based on slag composition and structure - and an inscription on No. 510 - holds true, the manufacture of Noric steel began as early as 300 B.C." [2] "Almost all the Celtic swords here examined were of good quality and would undoubtedly have yielded good service." [3] Not sure of the reason for the contradiction between "no particularly good quality" and "of good quality" but we have the 300 BCE date for Noric steel.
[1]: (Forbes 1950, 464) Robert James Forbes. 1950. Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists. E J BRILL. Leiden.
[2]: (Buchwald 2005, 122-124) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
[3]: (Buchwald 2005, 125-127) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
Diodorus Siculus mentions iron breastplates. [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 115)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)
"Bronze Italo-Celtic helmet with elaborate crest fitting for plumes or feathers, mid-4th century BC." [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 41)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)
"Bronze Italo-Celtic helmet with elaborate crest fitting for plumes or feathers, mid-4th century BC." [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 41)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.
[1] "The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [2] "The Greek writer Strabo commented that the Celtic warrior carried two types of spear: a larger, heavier one for thrusting, and a smaller, lighter javelin that could be thrown and used at close quarters." [3]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 58)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 115)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 116)
Inferred from previous and subsequent (quasi)polities.
Hache / axe. [1]
Two-wheeled war chariot. [1] Cavalry. [2] Cavalry replaced war-chariots from 250 BCE. [3] War chariots abandoned in Gaul 200-100 BCE. [4] Pulled a two-wheeled chariot which replaced the Hallstatt era four-wheeled wagon. [5]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 38, 52)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 60)
[3]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[4]: (Kruta 2004, 198)
[5]: (Allen 2007, 32)
The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
Warrior culture: burials with iron swords, helmets, spears, shields. [1] The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [2]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
Light breastplate c100 BCE or before.
[1]
"Bronze statuette of a warrior from Liechtenstein dated to the 5th century BC. Note the Greek/Etruscan-style cuirass."
[2]
Diodorus Siculus mentions iron breastplates.
[3]
Glauberg, Germany c400 BCE.
[4]
[1]: (Kruta 2004, 110)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 24)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 115)
[4]: (Kruta 2004, 60)
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.