La Tene (A-B1) was an early Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
[1]
The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included larger towns (indicating a degree of centralization), villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories.
[2]
Population figures are difficult to trace, but according to our expert some estimates put the largest settlement areas during the beginning of this period at 5,000-7,000 people.
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
| 31 U |
| La Tene A-B1 |
| None (Absent Capital) |
| Early La Tene | |
| La Tene Gaul | |
| Celtic Gaul | |
| Gaul | |
| Iron Age Gaul | |
| Celtic Empire | |
| La Tene | |
| La Tene culture | |
| Galli | |
| Celts | |
| Gauls |
| alliance with [---] |
| La Tene |
| La Tene B2-C1 |
| continuity | |
| population migration |
| Preceding: Hallstatt D (fr_hallstatt_d) [population replacement] | |
| Succeeding: La Tene B2-C1 (fr_la_tene_b2_c1) [continuity] |
| confederated state | |
| loose |
| [5,000 to 7,000] people | 475 BCE 400 BCE |
| 50 people | 399 BCE 325 BCE |
| 1,250 km2 | 400 BCE |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| present |
| Year Range | La Tene A-B1 (fr_la_tene_a_b1) was in: |
|---|---|
| (474 BCE 325 BCE) | Paris Basin |
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
La Tene culture is named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. Hallstatt - La Tene was a major cultural transition in Gaul 5th Century BCE. Overlaps in time depending on region.
[1]
"The term ’Celts’ - Keltoi in Greek and Celtae in Latin - was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus to describe the barbarian tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, the modern French city of Marseille ..."
[2]
The origin of the term Keltoi may be from the Celtic peoples themselves.
[2]
Galli "was used by the Romans from the beginning of the 4th century BC to describe the Celts who invaded Italy, and later those who lived beyond the Alps in present day France."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 6)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 8)
Tribes formed alliances with other tribes.
450-250 BCE Migration Period: "The migrations that these warrior societies undertook over the next 200 years effectively broke the bond between tribe and its ancestral territory. The institution of kingship declined among the continental Celts throughout the Migration Period as tribes split up and coalesced into new communities."
[1]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 61)
"That there was a significant degree of continuity between the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène social systems is evident." [1] also population migration?
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 64)
"That there was a significant degree of continuity between the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène social systems is evident." [1] also population migration?
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 64)
In the early La Tene: "The import of exotic luxury items accentuated an already existing trend towards increased social stratification among Celtic-speaking communities, accelerating the development of centralized chiefdoms and the formation of an elite class which controlled and monopolized the flow of trade."
[1]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[2]
so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 34)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
In the early La Tene: "The import of exotic luxury items accentuated an already existing trend towards increased social stratification among Celtic-speaking communities, accelerating the development of centralized chiefdoms and the formation of an elite class which controlled and monopolized the flow of trade."
[1]
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[2]
so there was some degree of centralization. However, after 400 CE there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 34)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
My own estimates. 50 based on quote from Wells about typical small communities, not offering estimate of large fortified settlement
475-400 BCE
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[1]
which collapsed c450-400 BCE.
For comparison: Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people
[2]
400-200 BCE
The distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated and there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[1]
"By the Late Iron Age Europe’s population had risen to between 15 and 30 million, with Italy and Greece being the most densely settled regions. The majority of settlements in the rest of Europe still housed fewer than 50 people. Earlier Iron Age hillforts and other more substantial settlements may have had populations, in some cases, of as many as 1,000 people, and some of the oppida that emerged in the last centuries B.C. may have accommodated as many as 10,000 people, though others were smaller."
[3]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 31)
[3]: (McIntosh 2006, 349)
My own estimates. 50 based on quote from Wells about typical small communities, not offering estimate of large fortified settlement
475-400 BCE
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[1]
which collapsed c450-400 BCE.
For comparison: Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria - Late Iron Age (2nd-3rd centuries BCE) Est. 3,000-10,000 people
[2]
400-200 BCE
The distinctive large urban fortified settlements did not appear until the mid-second century. Between 400-200 BCE agricultural burials were smaller, less differentiated and there were no large towns on the scale of the Early Iron Age settlements. Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[1]
"By the Late Iron Age Europe’s population had risen to between 15 and 30 million, with Italy and Greece being the most densely settled regions. The majority of settlements in the rest of Europe still housed fewer than 50 people. Earlier Iron Age hillforts and other more substantial settlements may have had populations, in some cases, of as many as 1,000 people, and some of the oppida that emerged in the last centuries B.C. may have accommodated as many as 10,000 people, though others were smaller."
[3]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Wells 1999, 31)
[3]: (McIntosh 2006, 349)
levels.
1. Town (possibly becoming fortified later in time period)
Early Iron Age settlements had large towns
[1]
which then collapsed 450 - 400 BCE
"Small fortified cities became common in the fourth and third centuries BC."
[2]
"All oppida are characterized by household units composed of individual houses plus ancillary structures (granary, cellar, pit) centered around a palisaded courtyard. This household cluster evokes, in reduced form, contemporary farms. Thus, the traditional architectural organization was still the structural basis of the later settlements."
[3]
2. Hamlets and villages
Small communities predominated, hamlets and farmsteads typically had a population of about 50.
[1]
3. Farmstead
"Agricultural complexes inhabited by single extended families (up to perhaps fifteen people)"
[4]
[1]: (Wells 1999, 45-47)
[2]: (Brun 1995, 16)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 18)
[4]: (Wells 1999, 57)
levels.
"The Halstatt Princedoms of continental Europe were brought down during the 5th century BC by the rise of groups of Celtic peoples whose social structure was dominated by a warrior aristocracy."
[1]
Lead into battle by chieftains such as Brennas at the Battle of the Allia (390 BCE) against Rome.
[2]
Military: "Deployment would probably have been by tribal contingents. Within these contingents, clans would deploy as separate bodies ... To identify each grouping in the battle line and to act as rallying points, the guardian deities of tribe and clan were carried into battle as standards topped with carved or cast figures of their animal forms."
[3]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 61)
[2]: (Kruta 2004, 66)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 123)
levels.
1. King
Had a retinue of military/legal assistants
2. Tribal chiefTribes
3. Clan chiefPagus (Clan) / Family group
[1]
Galatians, who migrated to Asia minor 279 BCE, also provide a possible insight into Gaulish social structure as they were closely observed by the Greeks. Chieftains (called a tetrach by the Greeks) lead each of the tribes each of which were divided into clans. Supra-tribal level of cooperation: the clans of all the tribes together appointed 300 senators "to attend an annual assembly at a shrine." However they were rarely unified and eventually the chieftains became kings. The chieftains "were assisted by three military advisers and a judge."
[2]
"At its lowest level, Celtic society was made up of extended families or clans that were grouped together to form territorially based tribes." If Ireland is representative, 3 levels of hierarchy: 1. family unit = fine. 2. five family units = clan. A number of clans in the same region = 3. tuath (tribe) ruled by a king."
[3]
[1]: (Collis 2003, 195)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 79-80)
[3]: (Allen 2007, 62)
previous code: inferred present | Indigenous coins are present, so we can infer that mints are present?
Customary law?
Honour price was "the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon custom of wergild, the amount payable by a third party in the event of unlawful injury or death." "The concept of honour price was fundamental to the legal system of the Celts. It dictated the conduct of all judicial cases, since the value of an individual’s oath or evidence was determined by his honour price. To bring a lawsuit against someone with a higher honour price required the intervention of a patron of higher rank, creating an environment in which the support of the richest and most influential members of the elite was constantly sought after."
[1]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 65)
previous code: inferred present | primitive irrigation system known from Beaker culture. "Silo" present during this time period.
[1]
Does this refer to food storage? Surplus production might also indicate irrigation systems. DH: is there evidence or reason to believe Beaker irrigation, if existed, remained?
"Silo" present during this time period. [1] Does this refer to food storage?
monnaie gauloise [1] This site does not offer clear evidence of indigenous coin production Some possible indication of 4th century coin production [2] , though many suggest indigenous coins in area not appear until mid-3rd c BCE [3]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Boardman 1993, 308) Boardman, J. 1993. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press
[3]: (Wells 1999) Wells, P S. 1999. The Barbarians Speak: How The Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe. Princeton University Press. Princeton.
monnaie gauloise [1] This site does not offer clear evidence of indigenous coin production Some possible indication of 4th century coin production [2] , though many suggest indigenous coins in area not appear until mid-3rd c BCE [3]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Boardman 1993, 308) Boardman, J. 1993. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press
[3]: (Wells 1999) Wells, P S. 1999. The Barbarians Speak: How The Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe. Princeton University Press. Princeton.
No Greek, Roman or Other coins currently present on chronocarto database until 250-175 BCE period. [1]
"The Hallstatt civilisation knew case-hardening only, but the Celts had various methods of ’steeling’ such as the false-damascening which consisted in welding harder and weaker strips together. Some of the natural steel quite free of of sulphur and phosphorus must have been difficult to forge as it was liable to form cracks." [1] "The general impression of the Celtic swords, here covering a period from roughly 650 to 100 B.C., is that the blade was normally manufactured from a single iron bar of no particularly good quality. The same material could as well have been utilized for nails. ... Common to all the Celtic swords is the extensive coldwork that has taken place. ... evidently the finishing part of the blacksmith’s usual hotwork, only that he continued hammering in the temperature range 800-600C ... Significant coldwork at room temperature must also have taken place, since the metal is work-hardened to high hardness and displays slip lines and Neumann bands. ... The 24 swords do not show any metallurgical development with time, except for one, the oldest, from Hallstatt. That one seems to be a rather mediocre sword based on an improper ore and an inexperienced blacksmith. ... three of them ... of superior quality, being pearlitic-ferritic and probably representing the famous Noric steel. If this argument, based on slag composition and structure - and an inscription on No. 510 - holds true, the manufacture of Noric steel began as early as 300 B.C." [2] "Almost all the Celtic swords here examined were of good quality and would undoubtedly have yielded good service." [3] Not sure of the reason for the contradiction between "no particularly good quality" and "of good quality" but we have the 300 BCE date for Noric steel.
[1]: (Forbes 1950, 464) Robert James Forbes. 1950. Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists. E J BRILL. Leiden.
[2]: (Buchwald 2005, 122-124) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
[3]: (Buchwald 2005, 125-127) Vagn Fabritius Buchwald. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
"Bronze Italo-Celtic helmet with elaborate crest fitting for plumes or feathers, mid-4th century BC." [1] "In the Halstatt and early La Tene periods, helmets were made of bronze. Iron helmets first appeared in the 4th century BC and gradually replaced the softer alloy, possibly in response to the development of the long slashing sword." [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 41)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 119)
"The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [1] "The Greek writer Strabo commented that the Celtic warrior carried two types of spear: a larger, heavier one for thrusting, and a smaller, lighter javelin that could be thrown and used at close quarters." [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 115)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 116)
"There seems no trace of the use of donkeys and mules before contact with the Italian peninsula." [1] Does this source say when this contact considered to have begun? My guess of the meaning is the Roman invasion but I don’t know the context the sentence was written in.
[1]: (Ellis 1998, 109) Peter Berresford Ellis. 1998. The ancient world of the Celts. Constable.
The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
The only mention of armour is chainmail. "Diodorus also mentions that some warriors wear iron breast plates of chain mail. Seated figures of stone from the sanctuary of Roquepertuse (Fig.163) and a stone statue of a Gaul from Vachères (Basse-Alpes) (Pl. VI), dating to the late first century BC, are shown wearing chain mail, and actual examples have been found in a few burials, including that of the warrior provided with the bird-crested helmet, who was buried at Ciumesti. One of the features of Celtic warfare which impressed itself upon the Classical mind was the fact that some warriors fought naked except for the sword belt and a gold neck torc." [1]
[1]: (Cunliffe 2000, 98-99)
"The basic equipment of the Celtic warrior was spear and shield. To this could be added a sword, a helmet and a mailshirt." [1] Iron chain mail was introduced in the third century BCE, probably by the Celtic peoples. [2]
[1]: (Allen 2007, 115)
[2]: (Gabriel 2002, 21) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
"Similarities between the logboats and plank boats of the period 600 BC to AD 600 and those of earlier times suggest that the roots of Celtic boatbuilding lie in the second millennium BC or earlier." [1] However there is no geographical or temporal resolution in this statement, even if the term ’Celtic’ implies La Tène and Hallstatt.
[1]: (Green 1995, 271)