Western Han Empire

People. Chang ’an.250,000 people given in the historical sources; ^[1] 400,000 from Chase-Dunn calculations ^[2]
300,000 at peak. ^[3]

[1]: (Loewe 1986a, 206)

[2]: (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)

[3]: (Du and Koenig 2012, 173) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.

KM. 2,433,000: 200 BCE; 2,100,000: 180 BCE; 2,643,000: 160 BCE; 3,186,000: 140 BCE; 3,729,000: 120 BCE; 4,567,000: 100 BCE; 5,700,000: 80 BCE; 5,900,000: 60 BCE; 5,783,000: 40 BCE; 5,350,000: 20 BCE; 4,917,000: 1 CE (in kilometers). Contains interpolated data. ^[1]
Beginning with a territory of approximately 1.5 million square kilometers. ^[2]
"The Han culture spread as far as Xinjiang, where Han wuzhu coins, bronze mirrors, and silk have frequently been discovered (fig. 8.36)." ^[3]
"In 108 B.C.E., Emperor Wu set up four prefectures - Zhenfan, Lintun, Xuantu, and Lelang - in the northeastern region. ... Emperor Wu also set up four jun in Hexi in northwest China and established relationships with the thirty-six states in the Xiyu region of western China." ^[3]

[1]: (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu 2005, 277) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.

KM. 2,433,000: 200 BCE; 2,100,000: 180 BCE; 2,643,000: 160 BCE; 3,186,000: 140 BCE; 3,729,000: 120 BCE; 4,567,000: 100 BCE; 5,700,000: 80 BCE; 5,900,000: 60 BCE; 5,783,000: 40 BCE; 5,350,000: 20 BCE; 4,917,000: 1 CE (in kilometers). Contains interpolated data. ^[1]
Beginning with a territory of approximately 1.5 million square kilometers. ^[2]
"The Han culture spread as far as Xinjiang, where Han wuzhu coins, bronze mirrors, and silk have frequently been discovered (fig. 8.36)." ^[3]
"In 108 B.C.E., Emperor Wu set up four prefectures - Zhenfan, Lintun, Xuantu, and Lelang - in the northeastern region. ... Emperor Wu also set up four jun in Hexi in northwest China and established relationships with the thirty-six states in the Xiyu region of western China." ^[3]

[1]: (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu 2005, 277) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.

KM. 2,433,000: 200 BCE; 2,100,000: 180 BCE; 2,643,000: 160 BCE; 3,186,000: 140 BCE; 3,729,000: 120 BCE; 4,567,000: 100 BCE; 5,700,000: 80 BCE; 5,900,000: 60 BCE; 5,783,000: 40 BCE; 5,350,000: 20 BCE; 4,917,000: 1 CE (in kilometers). Contains interpolated data. ^[1]
Beginning with a territory of approximately 1.5 million square kilometers. ^[2]
"The Han culture spread as far as Xinjiang, where Han wuzhu coins, bronze mirrors, and silk have frequently been discovered (fig. 8.36)." ^[3]
"In 108 B.C.E., Emperor Wu set up four prefectures - Zhenfan, Lintun, Xuantu, and Lelang - in the northeastern region. ... Emperor Wu also set up four jun in Hexi in northwest China and established relationships with the thirty-six states in the Xiyu region of western China." ^[3]

[1]: (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu 2005, 277) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.

"Early on in the days of the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD) the population passed the 50m mark. But thereafter it was to stay in the band 45-60m for a thousand years. ^[1]
Government census. 57,600,000 in 2 CE. 12 million family households. ^[2]
Agricultural intensification: population growth occurred in Former Han despite no increase in available arable land. Population migration to south throughout period. ^[3]
60,000,000 at zenith. ^[4]

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979)

[2]: (Keay 2009, 144)

[3]: (Roberts 2003, 43-44)

[4]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

"Early on in the days of the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD) the population passed the 50m mark. But thereafter it was to stay in the band 45-60m for a thousand years. ^[1]
Government census. 57,600,000 in 2 CE. 12 million family households. ^[2]
Agricultural intensification: population growth occurred in Former Han despite no increase in available arable land. Population migration to south throughout period. ^[3]
60,000,000 at zenith. ^[4]

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979)

[2]: (Keay 2009, 144)

[3]: (Roberts 2003, 43-44)

[4]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

1. Capital city2. Commanderie capital3. District capital3. Foreign vassal city (e.g. in Ferghana)4. Town5. Village.
Ruth Mostern (pers. comm) noted that district capital and foreign vassal city seem co-equal rather than one being subordinate to the other. ^[1]

[1]: (Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)

1. Emperor2. Upper level of ritual specialists inferred3. Lower level of ritual specialists inferred
Emperor was high priest. ^[1]
Eclectic mix of ancestor worship, sorcery, Daoism, polytheism ^[2]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 39)

[2]: (Theobald 2000f)

1. Emperor / Commander-in-chief

2. ying (division under a chiang-chun, or general)"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels... Above the hou kuan were the sector headquarters or tu-wei fu for garrison troops, and the division or ying, under a chiang-chun or general, the highest permanent position." ^[1]
Generals could lead campaigns on their own without the presence of the Emperor. e.g. 121-119 BCE campaigns which overthrew "five sub-ordinate Hsiung-nu kingdoms" ^[2]
"A field command was usually an ad hoc appointment for a specific purpose, often reflected in the title given to the recipient - such as ’General Charged With Crossing the Liao’ for a campaign in Korea." ^[1]
3. Hsiao-wei"... often translated as ’colonel’, was a lower rank used for temporary appointments
3. Official in charge of tu-wei fu (sector headquarters)"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels... Above the hou kuan were the sector headquarters or tu-wei fu for garrison troops, and the division or ying, under a chiang-chun or general, the highest permanent position." ^[1]
4. Official in charge of hou kuan (company)"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men." ^[1]
5. Official in charge of hou (platoon)"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men." ^[1]
6. Official in charge of sui (section)"Records from the north-western garrison give an outline of unit organization at lower levels: a hou kuan or company usually consisted of five hou (platoons), each with several sui or sections of an officer and four to ten men." ^[1]
7. Individual soldier"Conscripts served mainly as infantry; cavalry was provided by volunteers from noble families or by non-Chinese auxiliaries." ^[3]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 15)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 7)

[3]: (Peers 1995, 13)

"Interested readers should consult Hans Bielenstein for an excellent account of the Han bureaucracy structure and its changes over time." ^[1]
1. Emperor
"In comparison with Roman emperorship, the Han emperorship tended to be much more ritualistic and passive." ^[2] However, some Emperors, such as Emperor Wu, could be "active" which made the Inner Court more important at those times. ^[3]
2. Six Masters of the Inner CourtThese positions usually filled by eunuchs. ^[2]
According to Loewe 1986a, the Inner Court advisors were separate and distinct from the Outer Court (Senior Advisors and Councilors) after the reforms of Qudi. ^[4] Zhao though claims that the Inner Court advisors and attendants were subordinate to the Outer Court. ^[5]
3. Officials with no specific administrative positions. ^[2]
2. Two Ministries of the Outer Court: "the superintendent of the imperial clan and privy treasurer ... the officials of the Outer Court administrated the whole country." ^[2]
_Central government_
Outer Court headed by Three Excellencies (san gong)
2. Chancellor ^[6] of government administration and some role in military
3. Grandee secretary ^[6]
4. Two Assistants and a Master of Records under the Grandee secretary ^[6] 5. Lower-level assistants under the control of the Two Assistants and Master of Records under the Grande secretary. ^[6]
2. Supreme Commandant ^[6] of military affairsPosition mostly held by civilians. ^[6]
2. Imperial Counselor ^[6] of censorial matters
3. Thirteen Bureaux (cao) of the Secretariat ^[6] West Bureau (appointments), East Bureau (promotion, demotion, dismissal), Imperial Household, Memorials, Litigation, Communication and Standards (weights, measures, postal service), Military Transportation, Bandit Control, Criminal Executions, Soldiers, Gold (currency, state production monopolies), Granaries (levies, taxes, storage), Yellow Cabinet (records, supervision). ^[6]
3. Head of The Bureau for Communications and Standards4. Head of departmental division within postal service inferred level5. Lower-level official within postal service divisions inferred level6. On site managers of postal relay station inferred level7. On site workers at postal relay station e.g. messengers, stable hands etc. inferred level
3. Head of The Bureau for Granaries4. Head of foodstuff divisions within The Bureau for Granaries inferred level5. Head of regional divisions within the foodstuff divisions inferred level6. Other lower-level positions within regional divisions inferred level7. On site managers of granaries inferred level8. On site workers at granaries inferred level
3. Head of The Bureau for Gold4. Head of departmental division e.g. for iron production inferred level5. Sub-head within the department for iron production e.g. iron tools, weapons etc. inferred level6. Other lower-level positions within production type inferred level7. On site managers of production workshops inferred level
_Provincial government_
2. Grand governor of a commandery (tai shou) ^[7] "In the late Western Han era, the country was divided into 13 provinces, with 103 commanderies, that in turn were divided into 1500-plus county-level government units." ^[8] the provinces were technical boundaries used for administrative purposes and were not under the control of an individual so do not count as an administrative level. -- check this note
3. Several lower-ranked officials such as Assistant, Master of Records, Privy Treasure and Chief Clerk. ^[7]
3. Head of Bureaus, which included "Bureau of All Purposes, Bureau of Investigation, Bureau of Banditry, Bureau of Decisions, Bureau of Consultation, and Bureau of Agriculture Promotion." ^[7] "In the unearthed Donghai commandery documents dated to the late Western Han Dynasty, the total number of officials in that commandery is listed as 2,203, and most of these officials were grassroots personnel such as accessory clerk (492), chief of the officials’ hostel (688), and dou-salary clerks (501)." ^[1]
4. Sub-manager within a division inferred level5. Scribe inferred level6. Accessory clerk inferred at this level
2. Chief commandant (dou wei)"The grand governor was also assisted by an equivalent rank (2,000-shi) official entitled chief commandant (dou wei) who was in charge of all the military-related matters including training the local troops and militia, suppressing bandits, and inspecting fortifications and beacons." ^[7]
3. Heads of BureauUnder the chief commandant were "associates and assistants, heads of various bureaus, and military officers with titles such as jajors, captains, and millarians." ^[7]
4.
5.
3. County supervisors and Marquises (han-title holders) --- were Marquises directly appointed by Emperor?Regional inspectors. ^[9]
"We know that the Western Han Empire comprised 1,587 county-level government units at the time and the Donghai Commandery contained 38 counties."
4. district (xiang)
5. hamlet (li) chiefsFamilies grouped into "mutually responsible units" (5 - 10). These were organised into hamlets, which had a headman. Hamlets made up a commune, which had a chief. Multiple communes divided into districts/counties, which comprised the units of a commandery/prefecture. Only the last administrative level had outside-sourced, merit-appointed, salaried officials. ^[10]
Nine salary grades (in Shi) ^[11] suggests there could be up to nine administrative levels. However, perhaps we cannot directly infer this fact: might there be two officials at the same grade at different levels in a large department, or even grades skipped altogether, such as within a small but prestigious department?
10,000
2,000
1,000
600
400
300
200
100
 ?? dou-salary clerks

[1]: (Zhao 2015, 63) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 64) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Zhao 2015, 64-65) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[4]: (Loewe 1986a)

[5]: (Zhao 2015)

[6]: (Zhao 2015, 65) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[7]: (Zhao 2015, 67) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[8]: (Zhao 2015, 66) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[9]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

[10]: (Keay 2009, 145)

[11]: (Zhao 2015, 68) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

“In order to understand the nature and significance of these changes, one must first examine the Western Han military system carried forward, in modified form, from the Qin. Every adult male between the ages of 23 […] and 56 was required to give two full years of military service, one in the capital or at the frontier and one as a regular soldier in his own commandery. Selected individuals were trained as ‘Skilled Soldiers’ (cai guan) who were expert in using the crossbow, ‘Cavalrymen’ (ji shi), or sailors on a ‘Towered Warship’ (lou chuan), all of whom received higher status and better treatment. […] Each year in the eighth month every commandery was supposed to hold an inspection in which the commandery troops under the direction of the Commandant (du wei), the local military official, demonstrated their skills to the Grand Administrator (tai shou), the head of local government.

“There are two essential features in this system that must be noted. First, while all free adult males were obligated to provide military service, campaign armies were based on the three categories of elite troops: the ‘Skilled Soldiers’, ‘Cavalrymen’ and ‘Towered Warships’. Other soldiers served as porters, guards, and (literally) spear carriers, but the burden of combat against substantial, armed enemies was born by the elite categories of warriors. The division of armed forces—well-trained, crack units who were responsible for significant combat as opposed to partially-trained conscripts who provided support and the weight of massed bodies—was inherited from the Warring States period. Second, for local government the key feature was the annual training session and inspection under the supervision of a specialist military official.” ^[1]

Conscripts spent a year of service in training ^[2] However, "... begun during the Tang dynasty... The rise of religious professionals and soldiers as clearly separate groups was contrary to the previous normative view of society divided into knights (shi, the term that would later be applied to the literati or gentry), farmers, artisans and merchants." ^[3]

[1]: (Lewis 2000, 34-36) Lewis, M. E. 2000. The Han Abolition of Universal Military Service. In H. J. Van De Ven (ed.) Warfare in Chinese History pp. 33-76. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/the%20han%20abolition/titleCreatorYear/items/UKM7G8B8/item-list

[2]: (Peers 1995, 13)

[3]: (Lorge 2005, 7)

"... begun during the Tang dynasty... The rise of religious professionals and soldiers as clearly separate groups was contrary to the previous normative view of society divided into knights (shi, the term that would later be applied to the literati or gentry), farmers, artisans and merchants." ^[1]

[1]: (Lorge 2005, 7)

“In order to understand the nature and significance of these changes, one must first examine the Western Han military system carried forward, in modified form, from the Qin. Every adult male between the ages of 23 […] and 56 was required to give two full years of military service, one in the capital or at the frontier and one as a regular soldier in his own commandery. Selected individuals were trained as ‘Skilled Soldiers’ (cai guan) who were expert in using the crossbow, ‘Cavalrymen’ (ji shi), or sailors on a ‘Towered Warship’ (lou chuan), all of whom received higher status and better treatment. […] Each year in the eighth month every commandery was supposed to hold an inspection in which the commandery troops under the direction of the Commandant (du wei), the local military official, demonstrated their skills to the Grand Administrator (tai shou), the head of local government.

“There are two essential features in this system that must be noted. First, while all free adult males were obligated to provide military service, campaign armies were based on the three categories of elite troops: the ‘Skilled Soldiers’, ‘Cavalrymen’ and ‘Towered Warships’. Other soldiers served as porters, guards, and (literally) spear carriers, but the burden of combat against substantial, armed enemies was born by the elite categories of warriors. The division of armed forces—well-trained, crack units who were responsible for significant combat as opposed to partially-trained conscripts who provided support and the weight of massed bodies—was inherited from the Warring States period. Second, for local government the key feature was the annual training session and inspection under the supervision of a specialist military official.” ^[1]

[1]: (Lewis 2000, 34-36) Lewis, M. E. 2000. The Han Abolition of Universal Military Service. In H. J. Van De Ven (ed.) Warfare in Chinese History pp. 33-76. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/the%20han%20abolition/titleCreatorYear/items/UKM7G8B8/item-list

Treasury, grain depots and storehouses. ^[1]
Mints. One report says 28 billion coins minted. ^[2]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 48)

[2]: (Lewis 2009, 65)

"The criteria of official promotion during the Western Han Dynasty were by and large those of meritocracy, at least on paper, even though personal relations with superiors always played a crucial role in the promotion process." ^[1]
"During the Western Han Dynasty, the most common method of recruiting government officials was the recommendation system. In an edict of 134 BCE, Emperor Wu required each commandery or feudal kingdom to recommend someone "fially pious and incorrupt" (xiao lian) to the central government each year. This method was routinized and became the most important channel of recruiting government officials." ^[2]
"Liao has provided systematic data that give a sense of the recruitment and promotion of local government officials during the Western Han period. ... sixty of them (63 per cent) were promoted because of their good performance..." etc. ^[3]

[1]: (Zhao 2015, 70) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 68-69) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Zhao 2015, 71) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

"In the unearthed Donghai commandery documents dated to the late Western Han Dynasty, the total number of officials in that commandery is listed as 2,203, and most of these officials were grassroots personnel such as accessory clerk (492), chief of the officials’ hostel (688), and dou-salary clerks (501). We know that the Western Han Empire comprised 1,587 county-level government units at the time and the Donghai Commandery contained 38 counties. Based on the data, the estimated total number of officials below the commandery level is 2,203 x (1,587/38) = 92,004. Including the officials of the state-level government, the officials of the provincial level government, and officials at different censorial offices, the total number of 120,285 officials is a believable figure, and that figure should include the grassroots officials." ^[1]

[1]: (Zhao 2015, 63-64) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

1 year study and examination. Pass examination to become eligible for position in government. ^[1]
Crude examination system. ^[2]
"Before the Northern Sung, the principal means of entry into the social and political elite was by official recommendation or kinship relations." ^[3]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 68) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Elmam 2000, 5) Elman, B. 2000. A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press.

1 year study and examination. Pass examination to become eligible for position in government. ^[1]
Crude examination system. ^[2]
"Before the Northern Sung, the principal means of entry into the social and political elite was by official recommendation or kinship relations." ^[3]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

[2]: (Zhao 2015, 68) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

[3]: (Elmam 2000, 5) Elman, B. 2000. A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lawyers are not mentioned in Loewe’s ^[1] detailed description of the legal process in Han times. However, their existence may be inferred from the existence of a Superintendent of trials ^[2] .

[1]: (Loewe 1968, 67-68)

[2]: (Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)

Judges are not mentioned in Loewe’s ^[1] detailed description of the legal process in Han times. However, their existence may be inferred from the existence of a Superintendent of trials ^[2] .

[1]: (Loewe 1968, 67-68)

[2]: (Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)

Confucianism gradually replaced legalism. Qin legal code remained basically intact, some severe measures rescinded. ^[1]
Under Wudi students of legalism were prohibited from government. ^[2]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 48)

[2]: (Kerr 2013, 37)

Courts are not mentioned in Loewe’s ^[1] detailed description of the legal process in Han times. However, their existence may be inferred from the existence of a Superintendent of trials ^[2] .

[1]: (Loewe 1968, 67-68)

[2]: (Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)

Markets in Chang ’an. ^[1] Local markets were regulated. ^[2] "Bamboo slips excavated in a tomb in Linyi, Shangdong province, in 1972 contain sections of a document known as Shi fa (Rules about markets). According to Shi fa, markets were administered by officials, specific products were sold in prescribed locations, and misconduct in the marketplace was punished." ^[3] "Although markets are a stipulation of the ideal Chinese city since Zhou times, Han is the first period from which one can confirm their presence." ^[4]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 49)

[2]: (Keay 2009, 146)

[3]: (Steinhardt 2013, 113) Steinhardt, N in Clark, Peter ed. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History. Oxford University Press.

[4]: (Steinhardt 2013, 114) Steinhardt, N in Clark, Peter ed. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History. Oxford University Press.

^[1] List of agricultural practices includes irrigation: "intensive cultivation, field preparation, seed selection, irrigation, manuring, crop rotation, multicropping, animal power, specialised tools." ^[2]

[1]: (Keay 2009, 146)

[2]: (Roberts 2003, 43)

Government grain depots and storehouses. ^[1]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 49)

"Besides the more well-known extensive irrigation works and man-made transport canals linking up the major rivers, the provision of water supplies to its cities formed the third important element of China’s ancient water civilization." ^[1] "The entire underground water supply pipeline system of Yangcheng [Warring States Period?] was discovered in archaeological excavations (Figure 8.2), providing important physical evidence of early water supply of cities in ancient China." ^[2] Emperor Wu ordered the Kunming Reservoir to provide water for Chang’an which was delivered to the city via "water-transfer channels." One channel provided water to canals other "specifically for supplying water within the city." ^[3]

[1]: (Du and Koenig 2012, 169) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.

[2]: (Du and Koenig 2012, 171) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.

[3]: (Du and Koenig 2012, 172) Du, P and Koenig, A. in Angelakis, Andreas Niklaos. Mays, Larry W. Koutsoyiannis, Demetris. 2012. Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing.

Local governments "needed to keep the local road system and postal system well maintained." ^[1]

[1]: (Zhao 2015, 72) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.

There was a coast and there was trade with Japanese peoples.

^[1]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 36)

^[1]

[1]: (Keay 2009, 146)

The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC ^[1]

[1]: Ifrah, Georges (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0471396710.

Discovery of wrought iron process and invention of multi-tube seed drill, and heavy mouldboard iron plough (could sow 11.3 acres land per day). ^[1] Mathematicians use negative numbers in multiple author book "Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art." ^[1] Jing Fang (78-37 BCE) said 53 perfect fifths approximate 31 octaves, and suggested moonlight was reflection from the sun. ^[2] "...sulfur and saltpeter were recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the Divine Agriculturist compiled during the Han dynasty." ^[3]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 38)

[2]: (Kerr 2013, 39)

[3]: (Lorge 2011, 33)

"Huainanzi" - compilation under patronage of prince of Huainan. Daoist concept of creation. Eclecticism. ^[1]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

Dong Zhongshu - philiosopher. "Chunqiu fanlu". ^[1]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

E.g. Sima Qian’s "Shiji" genealogical tables and ruler lists.

Sima Qian d.85 BCE. "Shiji." Historian. Comprehensive history of China. Father held post of "Grand Recorder " at court. ^[1] Ssu-ma Ch’ien ^[2] (d.86 BCE).

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 50)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 5)

Carried Qin calendar. In 104 BCE emperor Wudi declared a "Grand Beginning" for a new phase in the Five Phase cycle. ^[1]

[1]: (Lewis 2009, 65)

Continuation from Qin monetary system: bronze coins; gold and silver bullion used as store of wealth. ^[1] gold and silver bullion used as store of wealth. ^[2]

[1]: (Thierry 2003)

[2]: (Scheidel 2009)

Emperor Wu experimented with "paper" money. Used the hide of a rare white deer that only he possessed. 1 note to 400,000 copper coins. Money raising exercise. ^[1]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 36)

"The Qin ban liang gave way to the smaller wu zhu coin in the Han. This coin weighed five zhu (hence the name), about three grams, and it continued in use until the Tang dynasty (618-906 A.D.)." ^[1] Along with wide variety of bronze denominations.

[1]: (Lewis 2009, 65)

Liu Bang was a "minor functionary in charge of a postal relay station" before he became a politician and eventually king, and Emperor. ^[1]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 35

claims of state-organized communication service by many kingdoms already in the Warring States period; infer that it was continued and expanded by the Qin Empire and adapted by the Han as well.

Liu Bang was a "minor functionary in charge of a postal relay station" before he became a politician and eventually king, and Emperor. ^[1]

[1]: (Kerr 2013, 35

"Next to some chidao were also built yongdao (palisaded roads), which were reserved for the emperor and his relatives." ^[1] A palisaded road is not really a fortification. Inferred that palisades would also be used in various instances as minor form of fortification, such as for some small towns.

[1]: (Nyland 2015, 128) Michael Nyland. Supplying The Capital With Water And Food. Michael Nylan. ed. 2015. Chang’an 26 BCE: An Augustan Age in China. University of Washington Press. Seattle.

^[1] Stone walls present in the Neolithic period ^[2]

[1]: (Bielenstein 1980, 15)

[2]: (Feinman, Gary and Liye, Xie. North China Workshop 2016)

Beacon towers etc, were not mortared? "Relief sculpture from the Han dynasty includes numerous examples of two-story and three-story towers." ^[1]

[1]: (Steinhardt, Nancy. 2002. Chinese Architecture. 新世界出版社. 38)

Frontiers settled with military colonies. ^[1] Military fortresses e.g. Luntai, Xinjiang. ^[2] "The border defense system had five basic architectural components. First were the border towns...most of them have moats, walls, gates, wall towers, corner towers, streets, administrative offices, shops, residences and storehouses. Some had additional wall fortifications and beacon towers." ^[3]

[1]: (Roberts 2003, 44)

[2]: (Chang, Xu, Allan and Lu 2005, 277) Chang, Kwang-chih. Xu, Pingfang. Allan, Sarah. Lu, Liancheng. 2005. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press.

[3]: (Steinhardt, Nancy. 2002. Chinese Architecture. 新世界出版社. 38)

possible cities still had moats from previous eras when they were necessary. however, with the unification of China under the Qin and Han, they might have lost them. "The border defense system had five basic architectural components. First were the border towns...most of them have moats, walls, gates, wall towers, corner towers, streets, administrative offices, shops, residences and storehouses. Some had additional wall fortifications and beacon towers." ^[1]

[1]: (Steinhardt, Nancy. 2002. Chinese Architecture. 新世界出版社. 38)

Up until the Tang and Song Dynasties wide ramparts and ditches were a typical part of the defense system for a fortified town or city. ^[1] After the 121-119 BCE campaigns against Hsiung-nu "A line of earthworks was built to extend the Ch’in defence line further into the steppe. For the next 18 years, there were no recorded Hsiung-nu raids into China." ^[2]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

[2]: (Peers 1995, 7)

^[1] Up until the Tang and Song Dynasties wide ramparts and ditches were a typical part of the defense system for a fortified town or city. ^[2]

[1]: (Bielenstein 1980, 15)

[2]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Up until the Tang and Song Dynasties wide ramparts and ditches were a typical part of the defense system for a fortified town or city. ^[1]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

"During the Spring and Autumn period, China developed steel and iron-made weaponry, and as the raw iron castings technique was widely practiced - and the ‘folded hundred times steel’ casting method was on the rise, along with various polishing techniques for steel - Chinese steel weapons were very much on the ascendant." ^[1] First steel adapted by Chu in 5th century BCE ^[2] , likely spread quickly to other states "As the smiths in time learned the possibilities of their material, and began producing quench-hardened steel swords ... bronze swords could not longer compete and went out of use completely. This seems likely to have occurred all over China by the late third century B.C. at the latest." ^[3] "As early as the later Han dynasty and the early Jin dynasty, the Chinese were already capable of producing steel." ^[4] Wootz steel was "being exported from India to China at least as early as the +5th century. … good steel was manufactured in China by remarkably modern methods at least from that time onwards also." ^[5] First high-quality steel 450 CE.

[1]: Hangang, Cao. Undated. A Study of Chinese Weapons Cast During Pre-Qin and Han Periods in the Central Plains of China. Retrieved December 2015: http://www.arscives.com/historysteel/cn.article.htm

[2]: (Tin-bor Hui 2005, 96)

[3]: (Wagner 1996, 197) Donald B Wagner. 1996. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. 2nd Edition. E J BRILL. Leiden.

[4]: (Lu 2015, 251) ed. Lu, Yongxiang. 2005. A History of Chinese Science and Technology, Volume 3. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University Press.

[5]: (Needham 1962, 282) Joseph Needham. 1962. Science and Civilization in China. Volume IV. Physics and Physical Technology. Part 1: Physics. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Iron-clad armor replaced copper. ^[1]

[1]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

In bronze.

"Bronze weapons were still in widespread use at the beginning of the Han." ^[1] Bronze weapons, e.g. axe. ^[2] bronze sword ^[3]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 4)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 11)

[3]: (Peers 1995, 10)

"early versions of siege crossbows and traction trebuchets may be noted in the accounts of the wars of the Qin and Han dynasties, and appear in the early military writings associated with the name of Mo Zi." ^[1] "There were various grades of crossbow of different draw-weight. The heaviest required a pull of over 350lbs to cock them, and were suitable only for static positions, where they could be fixed on revolving mounts. Strong men capable of loading the larger weapons were known as chuch chang, and were highly valued specialists." ^[2]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

[2]: (Peers 1995, 16)

arcuballiste and lever-operated stone-throwing catapults (trebuchets) approaches ..." from Warring States period, and "There was to be very little change in the Chinese art of siege warfare ... until the introduction of gunpowder" ^[1] "Siege equipment mentioned by Ssu-ma Kuang includes artillery, moveable towers, and artificial mounds erected to enable besiegers to shoot over city walls, and scaling ladders." ^[2] "Of the date of the introduction of the counterweight trebuchet to China there can be no doubt. It occurred in 1272, during one of the greatest sieges of Chinese history, at Xiangyang, where the Mongols besieged the Southern Song for five years." ^[3]

[1]: (Graff 2002, 23)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 20)

[3]: (Turnbull 2012, 33) Stephen Turnbull. 2012. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

arcuballiste and lever-operated stone-throwing catapults (trebuchets) approaches ..." from Warring States period, and "There was to be very little change in the Chinese art of siege warfare ... until the introduction of gunpowder" ^[1] "Siege equipment mentioned by Ssu-ma Kuang includes artillery, moveable towers, and artificial mounds erected to enable besiegers to shoot over city walls, and scaling ladders." ^[2] "Of the date of the introduction of the counterweight trebuchet to China there can be no doubt. It occurred in 1272, during one of the greatest sieges of Chinese history, at Xiangyang, where the Mongols besieged the Southern Song for five years." ^[3]

[1]: (Graff 2002, 23)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 20)

[3]: (Turnbull 2012, 33) Stephen Turnbull. 2012. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Unnecessary when peasants can be equipped with the easy-to-use crossbow.

Han infantry "were equipped with spears or halberds, swords, and bows or crossbows." ^[1] "Like the infantry, cavalry also used halberds, spears, swords and bows." ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

Technology invented later

Technology invented later

"The crossbow is the most frequently mentioned weapon in the sources, and was often given credit for the Han army’s superiority over its enemies." ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

Han infantry "were equipped with spears or halberds, swords, and bows or crossbows." ^[1] "Like the infantry, cavalry also used halberds, spears, swords and bows." ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

New world weapon

present in previous polities

Han infantry "were equipped with spears or halberds, swords, and bows or crossbows." ^[1] "Like the infantry, cavalry also used halberds, spears, swords and bows." ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

^[1] Han infantry "were equipped with spears or halberds, swords, and bows or crossbows." ^[2] "Like the infantry, cavalry also used halberds, spears, swords and bows." ^[2]

[1]: (Lewis 2007, 107)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 16)

Han infantry "were equipped with spears or halberds, swords, and bows or crossbows." ^[1] "Like the infantry, cavalry also used halberds, spears, swords and bows." ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

were known in China from earlier periods. "Halberd or dagger-axe blade, from a 1st century BC site at Liang-wang-shani in Yunnan (British Museum)." ^[1] "Bronze knife, Han period (British Museum)." ^[2]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 12)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 17)

Bronze axe. ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 11)

Emperor Wudi wanted to breed better horses to compete with Xiongnu. ^[1] Cavalry. ^[2] Use of the four-horse chariot discontinued during first century BCE. ^[3]

[1]: (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 133)

[2]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

[3]: (Peers 1995, 17)

Supply train included donkeys. ^[1] Never used in warfare, besides as pack animals. ^[2] Supply train: oxen, donkeys, horses, mules, camels. ^[1]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 12)

[2]: (North China Workshop 2016)

Never used in warfare. ^[1]

[1]: (North China Workshop 2016)

Never used in warfare, besides as pack animals. ^[1] Supply train: oxen, donkeys, horses, mules, camels. ^[2]

[1]: (North China Workshop 2016)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 12)

present in previous polities

"In sieges, and occasionally in the field, missile troops were drawn up behind men carrying spears or shields, but separate deployment seems to be the norm." ^[1] "A relief from I-nan, possibly late Han, appears to show two cavalry figures with shields, but this was uncommon, perhaps because weapons such as halberds, bows and crossbows required the use of both hands." ^[2]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 16)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 17)

Comprised "plates stitched together and divided into several section for the chest, shoulder and collar." ^[1]

[1]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

present in previous polities

^[1] "Infantry were often protected with leather or iron lamellar armour." ^[2]

[1]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 16)

"Iron lamellar cuirass from Erh-shih-chia-tzu, Inner Mongolia. Han period." ^[1] "Infantry were often protected with leather or iron lamellar armour." ^[2]

[1]: (Peers 1995, 10)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 16)

^[1] Infantry "wore caps or iron helmets" ^[2]

[1]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

[2]: (Peers 1995, 16)

Comprised "plates stitched together and divided into several section for the chest, shoulder and collar." ^[1] suggests plate armor covered chest

[1]: (Di Cosmo 2004, 234)

Ships were used for naval assaults in China for centuries