Western Han Empire

  General Description   The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China. ^[1] In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state. ^[2] A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China. ^[2]
The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China. ^[1] During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea. ^[3]
The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. ^[3] The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation. ^[4] The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread. ^[5] Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery. ^[5]
The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE. ^[6]
Population and political organization
The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms. ^[7] The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine. ^[1] The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan. ^[7] Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts. ^[1]
An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions. ^[6] Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. ^[8]

The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE ^[9] , and 60 million at its peak. ^[10] The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. ^{[11] [12]}

[1]: (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH

[2]: (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)

[3]: -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/ Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW

[4]: (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/

[5]: (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/

[6]: (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9

[7]: (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)

[8]: (Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)

[9]: (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD

[10]: (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ

[11]: (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)

[12]: (Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. "The Former Han," in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi’in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2