Home Region:  Turkestan (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Western Turk Khaganate

G SC WF HS EQ 2020  kg_western_turk_khaganate / KgWTurk

Preceding:
[continuity; First Turk Khaganate] [continuity]   Update here
Add one more here.

Succeeding:
Add one more here.

No General Descriptions provided.

General Variables
Identity and Location
Original Name:
Western Turk Khaganate  
Capital:
Ch'ien-Ch'üan  
Temporal Bounds
Duration:
[582 CE ➜ 630 CE]  
Political and Cultural Relations
Succeeding Entity:
Sogdiana - City-States Period  
Relationship to Preceding Entity:
continuity  
Preceding Entity:
UNCLEAR:    [continuity]  
Succeeding: Sogdiana - City-States Period (uz_sogdiana_city_states)    [continuity]  
Degree of Centralization:
loose  
confederated state  
Language
Linguistic Family:
Indo-European  
Language:
Sogdian  
Old Turkic  
Iranian  
Religion
Religion Genus:
Buddhism  
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Polity Territory:
[2,800,000 to 3,500,000] km2 600 CE
Polity Population:
[1,500,000 to 2,000,000] people 600 CE
Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 3]  
Religious Level:
[1 to 2]  
Military Level:
[4 to 6]  
Administrative Level:
[3 to 5]  
Professions
Professional Soldier:
present  
Professional Priesthood:
inferred present  
Professional Military Officer:
inferred present  
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
present  
Merit Promotion:
unknown  
Full Time Bureaucrat:
inferred present  
Examination System:
unknown  
Law
Professional Lawyer:
unknown  
Judge:
unknown  
Formal Legal Code:
unknown  
Court:
unknown  
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Irrigation System:
inferred present  
Food Storage Site:
unknown  
Transport Infrastructure
Road:
inferred present  
Port:
inferred absent  
Bridge:
inferred present  
Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
unknown  
Information / Writing System
Written Record:
present  
Script:
present  
Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
present  
Nonwritten Record:
present  
Non Phonetic Writing:
absent  
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
inferred present  
Sacred Text:
inferred present  
Religious Literature:
inferred present  
Practical Literature:
inferred present  
Philosophy:
inferred present  
Lists Tables and Classification:
inferred present  
History:
inferred present  
Fiction:
inferred present  
Calendar:
present  
Information / Money
Token:
present  
Precious Metal:
unknown  
Paper Currency:
unknown  
Indigenous Coin:
unknown  
Foreign Coin:
inferred present  
Article:
present  
Information / Postal System
Courier:
unknown  
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
  Wooden Palisade:
absent  
  Stone Walls Non Mortared:
absent  
  Stone Walls Mortared:
absent  
  Settlements in a Defensive Position:
absent  
  Modern Fortification:
absent  
  Moat:
absent  
  Fortified Camp:
absent  
  Earth Rampart:
absent  
  Ditch:
absent  
  Complex Fortification:
absent  
  Long Wall:
absent  
Military use of Metals
  Steel:
present  
absent  
  Iron:
present  
  Copper:
present  
  Bronze:
present  
Projectiles
  Tension Siege Engine:
inferred present  
  Sling Siege Engine:
absent  
  Sling:
unknown  
  Self Bow:
inferred present  
  Javelin:
inferred present  
  Handheld Firearm:
absent  
  Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
absent  
  Crossbow:
inferred present  
  Composite Bow:
present  
  Atlatl:
absent  
Handheld weapons
  War Club:
inferred present  
  Sword:
inferred present  
  Spear:
inferred present  
  Polearm:
inferred present  
  Dagger:
present  
  Battle Axe:
inferred present  
Animals used in warfare
  Horse:
present  
  Elephant:
unknown  
  Donkey:
inferred present  
  Dog:
unknown  
  Camel:
inferred present  
Armor
  Wood Bark Etc:
inferred present  
  Shield:
inferred present  
  Scaled Armor:
inferred present  
  Plate Armor:
unknown  
  Limb Protection:
inferred present  
  Leather Cloth:
inferred present  
  Laminar Armor:
inferred present  
  Helmet:
inferred present  
  Chainmail:
inferred present  
  Breastplate:
inferred present  
Naval technology
  Specialized Military Vessel:
absent  
  Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
absent  
  Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
absent  
Religion Tolerance Nothing coded yet.
Human Sacrifice Nothing coded yet.
Crisis Consequences Nothing coded yet.
Power Transitions Nothing coded yet.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Western Turk Khaganate (kg_western_turk_khaganate) was in:
 (564 CE 603 CE)   Sogdiana
Home NGA: Sogdiana

General Variables
Identity and Location
Original Name:
Western Turk Khaganate

Capital:
Ch'ien-Ch'üan

“According to the Chiu Tang-shu, Shih kuei Qagan (611-618/619), the younger brother of Tardu, expanded the lands under his control up to the Altay in the East and in the West "to the sea."104 His primary camp was in the San-mi mountains, north of Kuca.” [1] "Shih Kuei’s activity paved the way for the brief efflorescence of Western Türk power under his younger brother, Tun/Tong Yabgu Qagan (Chin. Tung shê-hu [t’uong d’iiap-guo)618/619?-630). He brought the Tieh-lê to full submission, annexing their lands and extending his sway to Afghanistan as far as Gandhara. The Sui-shu calls him master of the ancient territory of the Wu-sun, i.e. the iii valley. As the ally of the Byzantine emperor, Herakleios (610-641) he warred with Iran in Transcaucasia, contributing significantly to the Byzantine victory and the collapse of the Sâsânid state. From his capital at Ch’ien-Ch’üan ("1000 Springs," east of the Talas), he established an orderly government, sending tuduns (or toôuns, Chin. t’u-t’un [tou-du;:,n] (tax officials105) to supervise the el/il-tebers (Chin. hsieh-li-fa [giet-lji-piwat (piwar)] a title given to governors of conquered peoples106) and established good relations with Tang China, which contributed, along with mutual raiding, in sorne measure to the destruction of the Eastern Qaganate." [1]

[1]: (Golden 1992, 135)


Temporal Bounds
Duration:
[582 CE ➜ 630 CE]

552 CE: "The end of the Juan-Juan Khaganate caused by the Turks (Göktürk). That is the beginning of the First Turkic Khaganate. The leaders of the Turks were Bumin and his younger brother, Istemi. The Turks were a member group of the Juan-Juan confederation, with their ancestral origins in the Altai Mountains." [1]
"Khagan Bumin founded the First Turkic (Göktürk) Khaganate that was de facto divided into an eastern and a western part. The ruler of the western part was Khagan Istemi." [1]
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [2]
627 or 630 CE: "The Eastern Turkic Khaganate was brought under Chinese supremacy. It is dated to 630 by Györffy et al. and to 627 by Rogers.
"To the west the situation was more stable, in spite of revolts, but after 630 the qaghanate disintegrated into several tribal confederations, with the On Oq in Central Asia and the Bulgars to the west." [3]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 283) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[3]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 200)


Political and Cultural Relations
Succeeding Entity:
Sogdiana - City-States Period

Relationship to Preceding Entity:
continuity

"The half-century which followed is more confused: the western qaghanate became politically independent in 583, and dynastic rivalries emerged which were exploited on one hand by the Chinese, and on the other by certain subject tribes." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 200)


Preceding Entity:
First Turk Khaganate

"The half-century which followed is more confused: the western qaghanate became politically independent in 583, and dynastic rivalries emerged which were exploited on one hand by the Chinese, and on the other by certain subject tribes." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 200)

Preceding Entity:
Western Turk Khaganate [kg_western_turk_khaganate] ---> Sogdiana - City-States Period [uz_sogdiana_city_states]

Degree of Centralization:
loose

" Politically, the Türk Empire “grew out of a tribal confederation.” It had a core of “inner tribes” (the ruling clan and its allies, including “in-law” tribes), a second tier of tribes that joined freely (retaining their ruling houses), a third tier of tribes that joined under constraint (and whose ruling houses were usually replaced by state officials), and finally tribute-paying sedentary populations. Subject populations retaining their own kings included the Sogdians, with their major centers at Bukhara and Samarkand and farflung merchant colonies, willing collaborators with a nomadic state that possessed the military power to force open the Chinese markets.76" [1]

[1]: (Findley 2004, 43)

Degree of Centralization:
confederated state

" Politically, the Türk Empire “grew out of a tribal confederation.” It had a core of “inner tribes” (the ruling clan and its allies, including “in-law” tribes), a second tier of tribes that joined freely (retaining their ruling houses), a third tier of tribes that joined under constraint (and whose ruling houses were usually replaced by state officials), and finally tribute-paying sedentary populations. Subject populations retaining their own kings included the Sogdians, with their major centers at Bukhara and Samarkand and farflung merchant colonies, willing collaborators with a nomadic state that possessed the military power to force open the Chinese markets.76" [1]

[1]: (Findley 2004, 43)


Language
Linguistic Family:
Indo-European

c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1] "The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)." [2]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)


Language:
Sogdian

c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1] "The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)." [2]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)

Language:
Old Turkic

c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1] "The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)." [2]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)

Language:
Iranian

c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1] "The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)." [2]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)


Religion
Religion Genus:
Buddhism


Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Polity Territory:
[2,800,000 to 3,500,000] km2
600 CE

in squared kilometers 580 CE: 2,800,000; 630 CE: 3,500,000; 650 CE: 1,000,000 [1]

[1]: (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)


Polity Population:
[1,500,000 to 2,000,000] people
600 CE

People.
According to map above area very similar to Russian Turkestan in McEvedy and Jones, who estimate 2m for 600 CE. [1]

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd.


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 3]

levels.
This is the code for the Hephthalites.
1. Fortified urban community
2. Village3. Nomadic peoples


Religious Level:
[1 to 2]

levels.


Military Level:
[4 to 6]

levels.
Decimal system - as with nomads generally?
1. Ruler
2. 10,0003. 1,0004. 1005. 106. Individual soldier


Administrative Level:
[3 to 5]

levels.
1. Khagan
"The Western Turks were composed of ten tribes; and their khagan had the dignitary name jabgu." [1]
2. Head official of administration inferred3. Departments inferred4. Scribes/Assistants
3. Diplomatic service"Present in large numbers in the administration, the army and the diplomatic service, the Sogdians were also present as simple merchants." [2]

2. Vassal king e.g. of Samarkand or Bukhara
"Subject populations retaining their own kings included the Sogdians, with their major centers at Bukhara and Samarkand and farflung merchant colonies, willing collaborators with a nomadic state that possessed the military power to force open the Chinese markets.76" [3] 3. Chief official/assistant of the king4. Head of Mint if coins were produced (present under Hephthalites)
"In the kingdom of Gaochang (Turfan) during the first half of the 7th century, the Türks had functionaries responsible for the supervision and taxation of commerce.38" [4]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 283) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 204)

[3]: (Findley 2004, 43)

[4]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 208)


Professions
Professional Soldier:
present

Nomadic warriors are full-time.


Professional Priesthood:
present

"Together with writing, the Sogdians also brought Buddhism. Türk Buddhism was, in its oldest stratum, under Sogdian and Chinese influ- ence.12 The Bugut inscription shows that Buddhism was present in the empire at the time of the first sovereigns.13 Maniakh, the ambas- sador of the Türks at Constantinople, bore a Buddhist name14 and his family seems to have been well established at the court of Sizabul, since his son was raised there and while still young was given the sec- ond rank in a second Türk embassy: everything therefore indicates that this Sogdian family was strongly integrated into the framework of the Türk hierarchy, where it possessed rank and hereditary titles even thought the Türk Empire had only just been created." [1] "As the Türk Qaganate expanded and came into greater contact witb surrounding cultures, it was influenced by the religions of the conquered populations. Tbus, Mazdaism, other Iranian religious systems (e.g. Zurvanism) and Buddbist influences came to the fore during the era of the First Qaganate. Mugan and Taspar both fostered Buddbism. This is reflected in the Bugut inscription whicb dates to the second generation of Türk rulers (570’s or 580’s) and was written in Sogdian." [2]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 203)

[2]: (Golden 1992, 150)


Professional Military Officer:
present

Nomadic warriors are full-time.


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
present

"Present in large numbers in the administration, the army and the diplomatic service, the Sogdians were also present as simple merchants." [1] "In the kingdom of Gaochang (Turfan) during the first half of the 7th century, the Türks had functionaries respon- sible for the supervision and taxation of commerce.38" [2]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 204)

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 208)


Merit Promotion:
unknown

Full Time Bureaucrat:
present

"Present in large numbers in the administration, the army and the diplomatic service, the Sogdians were also present as simple merchants." [1]
"In the kingdom of Gaochang (Turfan) during the first half of the 7th century, the Türks had functionaries responsible for the supervision and taxation of commerce.38" [2]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 204)

[2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 208)


Examination System:
unknown

Law
Professional Lawyer:
unknown

unknown for previous polity.


Judge:
unknown

unknown for previous polity.


Formal Legal Code:
unknown

unknown for previous polity.


Court:
unknown

unknown for previous polity.


Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Irrigation System:
present

"In the oasis of Otrar to the northwest, the origin of new methods of irrigation implemented in the 6th century should most likely be sought in the old agricultural civilizations of the south, in Sogdiana or Khorezm. These improvements were linked to the presence of the Türk Empire, which unified these areas and made such a diffusion possible by establishing at Otrar the tudun in charge of Cac.84 The empire simultaneously increased the need for greater food production, and thus set in motion a cycle in which irrigated areas were extended and population and urbanization increased, thanks to techniques brought from the south.85 " [1]

[1]: (de la Vaissière 2005, 113)


Food Storage Site:
unknown

Transport Infrastructure
Road:
present

"The Türk state aspired to make the roads safe and gave its backing to the Sogdian diplomats’ trade negotiations." [1]

[1]: (Marshak 1996, 242)


Port:
absent

landlocked


Bridge:
present

"The Türk state aspired to make the roads safe and gave its backing to the Sogdian diplomats’ trade negotiations." [1]

[1]: (Marshak 1996, 242)


Special-purpose Sites
Mines or Quarry:
unknown

Information / Writing System
Written Record:
present

"The Sogdian contributions to the Türk Empire were important. Chief among them was unquestionably writing. In fact, the Sogdian alphabet, adapted progressively to Turkic phonology, was used throughout the history of the Türk and then Uighur Empires to write Turkic texts, aside from a rather brief period of national xenophobic reaction within the elites at the beginning of the 8th century, during which the runic alphabet was used." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)


Script:
present

c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions." [1]

[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.


Phonetic Alphabetic Writing:
present

The runic alphabet was used by the Western Turks as well as the Sogdian one. On the runic alphabet: “This writing system, it is now generally held, also derived from the Aramaic alphabet us.ed in the Eastern Iranian world. Oauson conjectures that this specifie alphabet (based on lrano-Aramaic, supplemented by Greek) was developed by istemi Qagan for use in his diplomatie missions to Byzantiurn. Its inventor was a cultured Hephthalite or Sogdian.221 This seems rather improbable as this new alphabet was unlikely to find readers in Constantinople. Von Gabain views it as an adaptation of the Aramaic cursive that had been in use in the Arsakid chancellery. It was developed by the Western Türks as a result of their contact with Iran in the late 6th century. It spread, together with the first wave of Manichaean missionaries among the Turkic peoples to the East.222 » [1]

[1]: (Golden 1992, 152)


Nonwritten Record:
present

"The Sogdian contributions to the Türk Empire were important. Chief among them was unquestionably writing. In fact, the Sogdian alphabet, adapted progressively to Turkic phonology, was used throughout the history of the Türk and then Uighur Empires to write Turkic texts, aside from a rather brief period of national xenophobic reaction within the elites at the beginning of the 8th century, during which the runic alphabet was used." [1]

[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202)


Non Phonetic Writing:
absent

Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
present

present for preceding Hepthalites. literate class under Roman and Indian influence.


Sacred Text:
present

Christianity in the towns? Bible?


Religious Literature:
present

e.g. Buddhism


Practical Literature:
present

e.g. used by government


Philosophy:
present

present for preceding Hepthalites. literate class under Roman and Indian influence.


Lists Tables and Classification:
present

e.g. used by government


History:
present

present for preceding Hepthalites. literate class under Roman and Indian influence.


Fiction:
present

present for preceding Hepthalites. literate class under Roman and Indian influence.


Calendar:
present

Khwarazm region: "The Khwarazmian solar calendar, related to the Zoroastrian system, is known to us thanks to Biruni, who argued that it was in advance of most other ancient systems for measuring time." [1]

[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.


Information / Money
Token:
present

under preceding Hephthalites coins and tokens, but not paper money, in circulation. [1]

[1]: Skaff, Jonathan Karam. "Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan: Their Relationship to International Trade and the Local Economy." Asia Major 11, no. 2 (1998): pp. 67-115.


Precious Metal:
unknown

Paper Currency:
unknown

Indigenous Coin:
unknown

Some Sogdian coins produced under the Hephthalities.


Foreign Coin:
present

under preceding Hephthalities Sassanian Empire, Chinese and Indian coinage were present. [1]

[1]: Skaff, Jonathan Karam. "Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan: Their Relationship to International Trade and the Local Economy." Asia Major 11, no. 2 (1998): 67-115.


Article:
present

Information / Postal System
Courier:
unknown

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Wooden Palisade:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Stone Walls Non Mortared:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Stone Walls Mortared:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Settlements in a Defensive Position:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Modern Fortification:
absent

absent before the gunpowder era


Moat:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Fortified Camp:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Earth Rampart:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Ditch:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Complex Fortification:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Long Wall:
absent

Military use of Metals
Steel:
present

At this time in Central Asia if high-quality steel was used it would have been imported. The following sources suggest later dates for fine steel. Reference for high quality of the steel (no beginning date provided): “In the context of this work, it is important to note that crucible steel of fine quality was made at Herat, in Bukhara and in northern India.” [1] Reference for high quality of the steel (this one dates from 900 CE): "Further east from Merv along the Silk Road is a region praised for its iron and steel production by Greek, Islamic, and Chinese writers. The Sogdian state of Ustrushana, a mountainous region east of Samarkand, and the Ferghana basin ... material related to the medieval iron and steel industry has been uncovered here. Most relevant ... is a workshop excavated at a city-site of the +9th-13th centuries in Feghana, at Eski Achsy, Uzbekistan. ..” Crucible fragments ”The excavators consider that the process used here was direct production of steel from ore, just as He Tangkun argues for the Luoyang crucibles. It is quite possible, however, that they were (also) used in co-fusion steel production as suggested by the Merv excavators." [2] Fine steel swords may have been produced at an earlier time than 900 CE with the technology coming from northern India or from this region via Persia: In Tibet c700 CE "steel swords were certainly available through trade with Sogdia and Fergana ... and many steel blades are known from Central Asia from the late first millennium until the arrival of Genghis Khan in the early thirteenth century." [3] "The Sogdian cities of Samarqand and Bukhara probably also manufactured iron and steel weapons that were exported to Tibet. We know that by the early eighth century, the Sogdians, having probably borrowed the technology from the Sasanians, were manufacturing mail armor and offered suits of the material as gifts to the Tang court in 718. ... The Sasasnians may themselves have developed knowledge of steelmaking from contacts with northern India." [4] "The principal centres for the manufacture of steel weapons in Central Asia were Khwarazm, Ferghana and northern India.” [1]

[1]: (Hill 2000, 270) D R Hill. Physics and mechanics. Civil and hydraulic engineering. Industrial processes and manufacturing, and craft activities. C E Bosworth. M S Asimov. eds. 2000. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century. UNESCO. Paris.

[2]: (Wagner and Needham 2008, 265) Donald B Wagner. Joseph Needham. 2008. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Clarke 2006, 22) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[4]: (Clarke 2006, 21) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.

Steel:
absent

At this time in Central Asia if high-quality steel was used it would have been imported. The following sources suggest later dates for fine steel. Reference for high quality of the steel (no beginning date provided): “In the context of this work, it is important to note that crucible steel of fine quality was made at Herat, in Bukhara and in northern India.” [1] Reference for high quality of the steel (this one dates from 900 CE): "Further east from Merv along the Silk Road is a region praised for its iron and steel production by Greek, Islamic, and Chinese writers. The Sogdian state of Ustrushana, a mountainous region east of Samarkand, and the Ferghana basin ... material related to the medieval iron and steel industry has been uncovered here. Most relevant ... is a workshop excavated at a city-site of the +9th-13th centuries in Feghana, at Eski Achsy, Uzbekistan. ..” Crucible fragments ”The excavators consider that the process used here was direct production of steel from ore, just as He Tangkun argues for the Luoyang crucibles. It is quite possible, however, that they were (also) used in co-fusion steel production as suggested by the Merv excavators." [2] Fine steel swords may have been produced at an earlier time than 900 CE with the technology coming from northern India or from this region via Persia: In Tibet c700 CE "steel swords were certainly available through trade with Sogdia and Fergana ... and many steel blades are known from Central Asia from the late first millennium until the arrival of Genghis Khan in the early thirteenth century." [3] "The Sogdian cities of Samarqand and Bukhara probably also manufactured iron and steel weapons that were exported to Tibet. We know that by the early eighth century, the Sogdians, having probably borrowed the technology from the Sasanians, were manufacturing mail armor and offered suits of the material as gifts to the Tang court in 718. ... The Sasasnians may themselves have developed knowledge of steelmaking from contacts with northern India." [4] "The principal centres for the manufacture of steel weapons in Central Asia were Khwarazm, Ferghana and northern India.” [1]

[1]: (Hill 2000, 270) D R Hill. Physics and mechanics. Civil and hydraulic engineering. Industrial processes and manufacturing, and craft activities. C E Bosworth. M S Asimov. eds. 2000. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century. UNESCO. Paris.

[2]: (Wagner and Needham 2008, 265) Donald B Wagner. Joseph Needham. 2008. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[3]: (Clarke 2006, 22) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[4]: (Clarke 2006, 21) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Iron:
present

Required for steel and must have been in use previously for weapons


Copper:
present

required for bronze


Bronze:
present

bronze artifacts and coins all along the silk road


Projectiles
Tension Siege Engine:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Sling Siege Engine:
absent

First use of the counter-weight trebuchet 1165 CE at Byzantine siege of Zevgminon. [1]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.


Sling:
unknown

Self Bow:
present

"Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." [1]

[1]: (Harmatta 1994: 476-477) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMC5FWXF/q/harmatta.


Javelin:
present

"Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." [1] "There are a number of artistic depictions, from different eras, that show steppe warriors on horseback and armed with a javelin". [2] ET: Whilst searching for data for the Hephthalites I found this late 19th century quote from an encyclopaedia. I cannot confirm it refers to the Hephthalites but it mentions horsemen. Did the horse backed warriors also carry a javelin? Bone-tipped javelins are less likely to leave finds for archaeologists. "Like the Mongols they were a race of horsemen. They fought with bone-tipped javelins, with sabers, and with slings or lassoes. They ate herbs and half- raw meat, which they first used as saddles ; and they clothed themselves with the skins of wild animals”.

[1]: (Harmatta 1994, 476-477) Harmatta, J. Conclusion. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: Karasulas, Antony. Mounted archers of the steppe 600 BC-AD 1300. Vol. 120. Osprey Publishing, 2004, p.28.


Handheld Firearm:
absent

absent before the gunpowder era


Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
absent

absent before the gunpowder era


Crossbow:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Composite Bow:
present

"It is no wonder that the skill required to produce steel swords over charcoal fires seemed supernatural. The same could be said for bow makers, who required great time and expertise to make the composite bows, which still set distance records exceeding those of European-style longbows “by humiliating margins.”83" [1]

[1]: (Findley 2005, 45)


Atlatl:
absent

Weapon of the Americas, extremely unlikely to be in use here


Handheld weapons
War Club:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Sword:
present

"Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." [1]

[1]: (Harmatta 1994, 476-477) Harmatta, J. Conclusion. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.


Spear:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Polearm:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Dagger:
present

"Among the steppe riders a dagger was typically carried in all periods, and a number of dagger designs are encountered in the archaeological and artistic record." [1]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 28)


Battle Axe:
present

"Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." [1]

[1]: (Harmatta 1994, 476-477) Harmatta, J. Conclusion. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.


Animals used in warfare
Horse:
present

Steppe riders


Elephant:
unknown

Donkey:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Dog:
unknown

Camel:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Armor
Wood Bark Etc:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Shield:
present

"Shields were known in all periods and, though they are mentioned in the contemporary literature, they only occasionally appear in artistic representations. They were typically made of leather on a reed frame, and a few rare examples survive." [1]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 29)


Scaled Armor:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Plate Armor:
unknown

Limb Protection:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Leather Cloth:
present

"Shields were known in all periods and, though they are mentioned in the contemporary literature, they only occasionally appear in artistic representations. They were typically made of leather on a reed frame, and a few rare examples survive." [1]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 29)


Laminar Armor:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Helmet:
present

"Helmets were widely used, although just as much evidence suggests soft, perhaps padded, headgear was also common. All types of helmets typical of the eras in this discussion found expression among the nomads, often with stylistic changes made to suit the tastes of the new nomadic owner. Often, especially among the Turkic and Mongolian tribes, metal helmets had leather neckflaps attached." [1]

[1]: (Karasulas 2004, 30)


Chainmail:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Breastplate:
present

Present in preceding and succeeding polities.


Naval technology
Specialized Military Vessel:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)


Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
absent

[1] Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time

[1]: (Kradin 2015, personal communication)



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
- Nothing coded yet.
- Nothing coded yet.
Power Transitions
- Nothing coded yet.