Home Region: Southern Europe (Europe)

Early Roman Republic

509 BCE 264 BCE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 it_roman_rep_1 / ItRomER

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

716 BCE 509 BCE Roman Kingdom (it_roman_k) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

264 BCE 133 BCE Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2) [continuity]

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General Description

The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (’the Arrogant’), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period. The early period is notable for the establishment of the governing institutions of the new Republic, a lingering tension between the wealthy, senatorial elites and poorer members of society (the ’plebeians’), and the establishment of Rome as the preeminent power in the Western Mediterranean.
In 390 BCE, just over a century after the establishment of the Republic, Rome suffered a near-fatal defeat at the hands of Gallic tribes, who invaded Italy from southern France and breached the city walls. Rome quickly recovered, however, and throughout the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE proceeded to conquer all of their neighbours in Italy, notably the larger and more populous Sabine, Etruscan, Samnite, and Graeco-Italian peoples. ^[1] Over the course of this dramatic expansion, Rome established colonies of Roman citizens throughout Italy and gained access to important sources of natural wealth in the process. ^[2] The rise of Rome in the west eventually caught the attention of other Mediterranean powers, notably the Punic peoples of North Africa. Indeed, the central narrative of the Middle Republic period is the continued expansion of Roman hegemony into the eastern Mediterranean.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome’s traditions. ^[3] A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws. The first codification of Roman law was laid down in this period (mid-4th century BCE) in the form of the Twelve Tables, a series of legal proclamations establishing certain penalties and procedures for enforcing ritual and customary practices. ^[4]
Consuls were drawn from the senatorial elite - Rome’s wealthy aristocratic families - until 367 BCE, when plebeians were first entitled to stand for this prestigious office. ^[5] This change followed a period known as the ’Conflict of the Orders’, a time which poses intractable problems for historians because most sources date from after 367 BCE. ^[6] The conflict essentially pitted Rome’s wealthy elite, who enjoyed nearly all of the prestige and power of political office as well as controlling most of the city’s agricultural land, against the poorer members of society (plebeians), mainly small-scale or tenant farmers who had contributed to Roman territorial expansion by serving as soldiers during the wars of the early Republic. ^[7] Early on in the Republican period, in 494 BCE, the plebeians essentially went on strike, refusing to march to war against a coalition of tribes from central Italy. ^[7] A settlement was reached when Rome’s aristocrats extended to the plebeians the right to vote for certain magistrates, known as the Tribunes of the Plebs (essentially the ’people’s magistrates’). This was an important office charged with looking after the needs of Rome’s poorer citizens, who held veto powers against decisions made in the Senate. Nevertheless, tensions between the aristocrats and the plebeians lingered throughout the 4th century BCE.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed ’secular’ and ’sacred’ authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. ^[8] These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. ^[8] Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, ^[8] but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. ^[9]
As Rome defeated nearly all other powers in the region during this period, establishing colonies and turning many former enemies into new allies and confederates, the territory it claimed increased dramatically until it included nearly all of central and southern Italy. This amplified its agricultural wealth and access to other natural resources, leading to a period of economic and demographic expansion. Rome grew from around 100,000-200,000 people at the beginning of the period to perhaps as many as 1,000,000 by the start of the Middle Republic. ^[10]

[1]: (Cornell 1995) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge.

[2]: (Bispham 2006) Edward Bispham. 2006. ’Coloniam Deducere: How Roman Was Roman Colonization during the Middle Republic?’, in Greek and Roman Colonization: Origins, Ideologies and Interactions, edited by Guy Bradley, John-Paul Wilson, and Edward Bispham, 73-160. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

[3]: (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[4]: (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 46) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[5]: (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[6]: (Beck et al. 2011, 5) Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo. 2011. ’The Republic and Its Highest Office: Some Introductory Remarks on the Roman Consulate’, in Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic, edited by Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo, 1-16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[7]: (Raaflaub 2005) Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. ’The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach’, in Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

[8]: (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[9]: (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. ’Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[10]: (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. ’Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate’, in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

1 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

3 Population of the Largest Settlement

3 Polity Territory

3 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

3 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

5 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

2 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

2 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

2 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events

15 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1) was in:
(509 BCE 265 BCE)	Latium

Home NGA: Latium

General Variables

Identity and Location Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	33 T	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Original Name	Roman Republic	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Capital	Rome	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Alternative Name	Early Roman Republic	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	287 BCE
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Duration	[509 BCE ➜ 264 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---]	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Latin States	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Middle Roman Republic	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[50,000 to 75,000] km²	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Succeeding Entity 264 BCE 133 BCE	Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2) [continuity]
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Preceding Entity 716 BCE 509 BCE	Roman Kingdom (it_roman_k) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Language Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Language	Latin	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Language	Greek	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Religion Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Roman State Religions	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Religion Family	Republican Religions	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	30,000 people	500 BCE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	30,000 people	400 BCE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	[50,000 to 60,000] people	300 BCE
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Polity Territory	1,300 km²	500 BCE
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Polity Territory	1,300 km²	400 BCE
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Polity Territory	[5,000 to 30,000] km²	300 BCE
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Polity Population	100,000 people	500 BCE
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Polity Population	150,000 people	400 BCE
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Polity Population	[500,000 to 1,000,000] people	300 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	2	500 BCE
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Settlement Hierarchy	2	400 BCE
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Settlement Hierarchy	5	300 BCE
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Religious Level	4	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Military Level	6	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Administrative Level	3	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Professions Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Absent	500 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Disputed	400 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Present Disputed	400 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Present Disputed	300 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Disputed	300 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Examination System	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Law Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present Disputed	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Professional Lawyer	Absent Disputed	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Judge	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Court	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Irrigation System	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Port	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Canal	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Bridge	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Information / Writing System Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Script	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Mnemonic Device	Uncoded Undecided	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Sacred Text	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Religious Literature	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Practical Literature	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Philosophy	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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History	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Fiction	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Calendar	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Information / Money Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Present Disputed	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Token	Absent Disputed	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Precious Metal	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Article	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Information / Postal System Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Courier	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moat	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Long Wall	absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Military use of Metals Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Iron	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Copper	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Bronze	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Projectiles Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Sling	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Self Bow	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Javelin	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Handheld weapons Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Sword	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Spear	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Polearm	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Dagger	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Battle Axe	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Elephant	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Donkey	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Camel	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Armor Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Shield	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Plate Armor	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Limb Protection	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Helmet	Present Inferred	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Chainmail	Absent	509 BCE 300 BCE
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Chainmail	Unknown Suspected	299 BCE 264 BCE
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Breastplate	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Naval technology Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Unknown	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent	509 BCE 264 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More