Home Region: Southern Europe (Europe)

Middle Roman Republic

264 BCE 133 BCE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 it_roman_rep_2 / ItRomMR

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

509 BCE 264 BCE Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

133 BCE 31 BCE Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3) [continuity]

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General Description

The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (’the Arrogant’), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.
During the 3rd century BCE, Rome fought two separate wars (264-241 BCE and 218-201 BCE) against the Punic people, inhabitants of a former Phoenician colony in North Africa, Sicily, and southern Spain. The latter conflict featured a bitter contest against the famous Punic general Hannibal, who nearly defeated the Romans on his dramatic march through Italy from 218 to 216 BCE. However, Rome recovered, won control of Punic holdings in Sicily and Spain, and established what were essentially vassal kingdoms in North Africa. In the early 2nd century BCE, Rome became embroiled in another series of wars in Greece, Macedonia, and Anatolia. The 3rd and 2nd centuries were a somewhat chaotic time in the eastern Mediterranean, following the fragmentation of Alexander the Great’s Macedonian Empire after his death in 323 BCE. Alexander’s Empire had essentially dissolved into a series of successor states, which engaged in near-constant warfare in their attempts to expand at the others’ expense. ^[1] By 148 BCE, at the conclusion of the fourth and final Macedonian War, Rome was either in possession of or was firmly established as hegemon over the entire Mediterranean basin, from Spain in the west to Anatolia in the east, and France in the north to Libya and Egypt in the south. This position brought new territory along with a flood of new peoples, culture, and wealth from the ancient civilizations in Greece, Egypt, and Anatolia. By the end of the Middle Republic period, Rome was virtually unchallenged by external enemies, although this newfound wealth and power was accompanied by the period of internal turmoil that characterized the Late Republic.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome’s traditions. ^[2] A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed ’secular’ and ’sacred’ authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. ^[3] These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. ^[3] Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, ^[3] but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. ^[4]
The Middle Roman Republic saw many firsts in Rome’s economic development. The first paved road was the likely the military road to Capua known as the Appian Way, commissioned around 312 BCE. The first Roman coins (large cast bronze coins) appear around 270 BCE, followed by struck bronze and silver coins imitating Greek forms. ^[5] ^[6] This period also saw a further population increase in the total population of Roman-controlled Italy to between about three and five million people, with Rome itself likely supporting over 200,000 people by the end of the 3rd century BCE. ^[7]

[1]: (Eckstein 2006, chapter 4) Arthur M. Eckstein. 2006. Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[2]: (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[3]: (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[4]: (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. ’Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[5]: (von Reden 2010, 50) Sitta von Reden. 2010. Money in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[6]: (Crawford 1974, 6-11) Michael H. Crawford. 1974. Roman Republican Coinage. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[7]: (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. ’Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate’, in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

1 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

2 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

2 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

2 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

2 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events

19 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2) was in:
(264 BCE 134 BCE)	Latium

Home NGA: Latium

General Variables

Identity and Location Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	33 T	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Original Name	Middle Roman Republic	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Capital	Rome	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Alternative Name	Middle Roman Republic	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	133 BCE
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Duration	[264 BCE ➜ 133 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	ir_seleucid_emp nominal allegiance to it_roman_rep_2	204 BCE 192 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	none	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Roman	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Late Roman Republic	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Preceding Entity 509 BCE 264 BCE	Early Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_1) [continuity]
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Succeeding Entity 133 BCE 31 BCE	Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3) [continuity] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Language Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Language	Latin	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Language	Greek	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Religion Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Roman State Religions	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Religion Family	Republican Religions	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	210,000 people	200 BCE
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Population of the Largest Settlement	400,000 people	100 BCE
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Polity Territory	[130,000 to 730,000] km²	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Polity Population	[3,500,000 to 4,000,000] people	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	5	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Religious Level	4	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Military Level	6	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Administrative Level	[3 to 4]	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Professions Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present Disputed	200 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Disputed	200 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Examination System	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Law Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present Disputed	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Professional Lawyer	Absent Disputed	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Judge	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Court	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Irrigation System	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Port	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Canal	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Bridge	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Information / Writing System Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Script	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Sacred Text	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Religious Literature	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Practical Literature	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Philosophy	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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History	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Fiction	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Calendar	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Information / Money Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Precious Metal	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Article	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Information / Postal System Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Courier	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Absent Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moat	Unknown	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Long Wall	absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Military use of Metals Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Iron	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Copper	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Bronze	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Projectiles Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Sling	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Self Bow	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Javelin	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Handheld weapons Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Sword	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Spear	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Polearm	Absent Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Dagger	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Battle Axe	Absent Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Elephant	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Donkey	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Camel	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Armor Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Shield	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Plate Armor	Present Inferred	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Limb Protection	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Helmet	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Chainmail	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Breastplate	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Naval technology Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Transitional (Absent -> Present)	264 BCE 133 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More