Home Region: Southern Europe (Europe)

Late Roman Republic

133 BCE 31 BCE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 it_roman_rep_3 / ItRomLR

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264 BCE 133 BCE Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2) [continuity]

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General Description

The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (’the Arrogant’), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.
The Late Republican period began once Rome was firmly established as the major power throughout the Mediterranean basin. By the end of the period, Romans had taken control of the entire Mediterranean region, with further territorial expansion into North Africa, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt. Success abroad, however, was not matched by stability at home. The Roman state entered a prolonged period of crisis during the 1st century BCE. Civil wars were frequent, pitting different military leaders such as Sulla, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar and their supporters against each other. An underlying tension persisted between the wealthy and elite and the rest of the population. These tensions intensified in 133 BCE, when a Plebeian Tribune (an elected official charged with looking after the interests of the poorer members of society) named Tiberius Gracchus proposed legislation to redistribute land that had been taken over (legally and extra-legally) by wealthy aristocrats to landless Romans, particularly those who had served in the army. This move upset the ruling elite, leading to a riot in the streets of Rome and, ultimately, to Gracchus’ death. The city’s different political factions were polarized by these events, leading to a series of violent contests for power by military leaders supported either by the elites (notably Sulla and Pompey the Great) or styled as champions of the people (Marius, Caesar, and Octavian/Augustus).
The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (soon to take the title of Augustus as the first ruler of the imperial Roman state, known as the Principate) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome’s traditions. ^[1] A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed ’secular’ and ’sacred’ authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. ^[2] These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. ^[2] Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, ^[2] but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. ^[3]
Despite the internal strife, Rome remained essentially unchallenged by external forces and continued to make military advances. The significant reforms of the consul Marius helped modernize the ever-expanding Roman army around 105 BCE by removing property qualifications for military service, paving the way towards a fully professional fighting force. The period also saw some extensive engineering projects that increased urbanization and economic development: roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres, theatres, public baths, as well as Roman administrative and legal institutions spread alongside the military throughout the Mediterranean. Though this time was a period of political instability, it also was the start of a ’golden age’ in the cultural history of Rome, with literary figures like Cicero, Horace, Sallust, Caesar and Catullus, among others, leaving important and influential writings.
The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. ^[4]

[1]: (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2]: (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. ’Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[3]: (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. ’Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[4]: (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. ’Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate’, in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

1 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

3 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

2 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

2 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

2 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events

24 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3) was in:
(133 BCE 29 BCE)	Latium

Home NGA: Latium

General Variables

Identity and Location Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	33 T Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Original Name	Late Roman Republic Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Capital	Rome Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Alternative Name	Late Roman Republic Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	49 BCE Expert
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Duration	[133 BCE ➜ 31 BCE] Expert
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Political and Cultural Relations Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	fr_la_tene_c2_d alliance with it_roman_rep_3	175 BCE 27 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---] Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Suprapolity Relations	vassalage to [---] Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Roman Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Roman Empire - Principate Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Preceding Entity 264 BCE 133 BCE	Middle Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_2) [continuity] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Language Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Language	Latin Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Language	Greek Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Religion Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Roman State Religions Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Religion Family	Republican Religions Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided Expert	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	400,000 people	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Polity Territory	[1,950,000 to 3,500,000] km²	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Polity Population	[25,000,000 to 35,000,000] people	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	7	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Religious Level	4	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Military Level	7	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Administrative Level	[3 to 4]	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Professions Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present Disputed	100 BCE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Disputed	100 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Present Disputed	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Disputed	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Examination System	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Law Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Judge	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Court	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Irrigation System	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Port	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Canal	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Bridge	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Information / Writing System Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Script	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Sacred Text	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Religious Literature	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Practical Literature	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Philosophy	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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History	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Fiction	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Calendar	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Information / Money Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Precious Metal	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Article	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Information / Postal System Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Courier	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moat	Unknown	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Military use of Metals Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Iron	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Copper	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Bronze	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Projectiles Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Sling	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Self Bow	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Javelin	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Handheld weapons Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Sword	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Spear	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Polearm	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Dagger	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Battle Axe	Absent Inferred	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Elephant	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Donkey	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Dog	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Camel	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Armor Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Shield	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Plate Armor	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Limb Protection	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Helmet	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Chainmail	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Breastplate	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Naval technology Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Transitional (Absent -> Present)	133 BCE 31 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Late Roman Republic (it_roman_rep_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More