The Ak Koyunlu were a loose confederation of nomadic Turkman tribes that ruled in Iran between 1339-1501 CE.
[1]
They formed an alliance with the Timurid Emirate (1370-1526 CE) until Uzun Hasan (r. c1453-1478 CE) declared himself an independent sultan.
[2]
Their rule was ended by the Safavids in 1501 CE.
[1]
The initial Ak Koyunlu government system was not complex; the sultan, a member of the Bayandor clan, was the head of a confederation
[3]
and obliged to attend and abide by the decisions of a powerful council of Amirs (kengac) and tribal chiefs (boy kanlari). This collective "determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate".
[1]
However, by Qara Otman (c1398 CE) the Ak Koyunlu had gained "at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type."
[1]
in addition to support from more tribes, and better relations with Christian sedentary people.
In the second half of the fifthteenth century, the complexity of state institutions increased another step with the conquest of eastern Iran.
[1]
Uzun Hasan maintained the existing administrative system as well as their officials.
[1]
Woods (1998) notes that there is evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize administrative and financial procedures.
[4]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[3]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) QR Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[4]: (Woods 1998, 108) J E Woods. 1999. The Aqquyunlu. Clan, Confederation, Empire. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press.
| alliance with [---] |
| Safavid Empire |
| population migration |
| UNCLEAR: [population replacement] | |
| Succeeding: Safavid Empire (ir_safavid_emp) [continuity] |
| confederated state | |
| loose |
| 1,800,000 km2 | 1500 CE |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| absent | 1339 CE 1472 CE |
| present | 1473 CE 1501 CE |
| absent | 1400 CE |
| present | 1500 CE |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| absent |
| Year Range | Ak Koyunlu (ir_ak_koyunlu) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1471 CE 1504 CE) | Susiana |
Timur gave the city of Amed to the Ak Koyunlu "which was to be their capital for almost seventy years." [1] "At Aleppo, the Aqquyunlu so distinguished themselves in battle that Timur allegedly rewarded Ibrahim, Qara ’Usman’s eldest son, with the city of Amid, held by Timur since its capture from al-Zahir ’Isa~Artuqi in 1394/796. This is the first reference to Aqquyunlu control of that city, which remained capital of the Principality until Uzun Hasan’s conquests of 1467-69/872-74, when it was replaced by Tabriz." [2] "summer pastures (yeylāq) in Armenia around Sinir, east of Bayburt, and winter pastures (qešlāq) around Kiḡi, Palu, and Ergani in Dīār Bakr." [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Woods 1998, 41)
Timur gave the city of Amed to the Ak Koyunlu "which was to be their capital for almost seventy years." [1] "At Aleppo, the Aqquyunlu so distinguished themselves in battle that Timur allegedly rewarded Ibrahim, Qara ’Usman’s eldest son, with the city of Amid, held by Timur since its capture from al-Zahir ’Isa~Artuqi in 1394/796. This is the first reference to Aqquyunlu control of that city, which remained capital of the Principality until Uzun Hasan’s conquests of 1467-69/872-74, when it was replaced by Tabriz." [2] "summer pastures (yeylāq) in Armenia around Sinir, east of Bayburt, and winter pastures (qešlāq) around Kiḡi, Palu, and Ergani in Dīār Bakr." [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Woods 1998, 41)
Aq Qoyunlu; White Sheep. [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlū. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Aq Qoyunlu; White Sheep. [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlū. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Under Qara Otman 1398 CE the Ak Koyunlu gained more territory, support from more tribes, better relations with Christian sedentary peoples, and he "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type."
[1]
"The Āq Qoyunlu empire reached its zenith under Uzun Ḥasan. He was the first of their rulers to declare himself an independent sultan".
[1]
r. c1453-1478 CE.
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Start 1339 CE.
First Ak Koyunlu leader mentioned in "mutually independent sources" Tur-Ali b. Pahlavan.
[1]
End 1501 CE
The Ak Koyunlu "ruled in eastern Anatolia and western Iran until the Safavid conquest in 1501."
[2]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlū. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Allied with Timur [1] and the Venetians. [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"Amplifying the earlier view of Minorsky, Sümer notes the eastward reflux from Anatolia of the Mongol Oirot, Jalayir, and Süldüz after 1335/736 in addition to the three Turkmen "waves" composed of the Qaraquyunlu, the Aqquyunlu, and the Safavid Qizilbash that swept out of Anatolia over Iran in the fifteenth/ninth and sixteenth/ tenth centuries. In any case, these later demographic changes differed from the earlier Turkic and Mongol invasions of the Islamic lands from Central Asia in that they essentially involved the relocation or reshuffling of existing elements into new political configurations as distinct from the overlaying of an indigenous population by entirely new peoples." [1]
[1]: (Woods 1998, 3)
"Amplifying the earlier view of Minorsky, Sümer notes the eastward reflux from Anatolia of the Mongol Oirot, Jalayir, and Süldüz after 1335/736 in addition to the three Turkmen "waves" composed of the Qaraquyunlu, the Aqquyunlu, and the Safavid Qizilbash that swept out of Anatolia over Iran in the fifteenth/ninth and sixteenth/ tenth centuries. In any case, these later demographic changes differed from the earlier Turkic and Mongol invasions of the Islamic lands from Central Asia in that they essentially involved the relocation or reshuffling of existing elements into new political configurations as distinct from the overlaying of an indigenous population by entirely new peoples." [1]
[1]: (Woods 1998, 3)
(Relationship): The Safavids drove out the Āq Qoyunlu from Persia with the help of Qezelbāš tribal forces. They installed themselves as Shahs, princes etc and Qezelbāš were given regional governorships. They declared the new regime to be Shi’i and the existing Sunni population was "persecuted, driven out, or killed".
[1]
Evidence for this is material cultural e.g. new coins minted and texts such as chronologies.
[1]
"the Safavids were themselves the posterity of the Aq Qoyunlu, not only in a genealogical sense, but also as heirs to a tribally constituted military elite".
[2]
Ismail began from a power base in the Caspian region, before moving into western Persia and Azerbaijan after defeating the the Āq Qoyunlu.
[3]
, The Safavids drove out the Āq Qoyunlu from Persia with the help of Qezelbāš tribal forces. They installed themselves as Shahs, princes etc and Qezelbāš were given regional governorships. They declared the new regime to be Shi’i and the existing Sunni population was "persecuted, driven out, or killed".
[1]
Evidence for this is material cultural e.g. new coins minted and texts such as chronologies.
[1]
"the Safavids were themselves the posterity of the Aq Qoyunlu, not only in a genealogical sense, but also as heirs to a tribally constituted military elite".
[2]
Ismail began from a power base in the Caspian region, before moving into western Persia and Azerbaijan after defeating the the Āq Qoyunlu.
[3]
(Entity): "Having lived under the protection of the ruler of Gilān for five years, in 1499 Esmāʿil emerged from the Caspian region, defeated the Širvānšāhs, and set out to wrest control of western Persia from the Āq Qoyunlu. In 1501, the Safavid army broke the power of the Āq Qoyunlu by defeating their ruler, Alvand (r. 1497 in Diārbakr [q.v.], and then in Azerbaijan until 1502, d. 1504), in the Battle of Šarur, in the Aras valley."
[1]
Core region: Anatolia and Azarbaijan: "A once parochial and religiously ambiguous millenarian movement that had depended heavily on the nomadic elements of the Anatolian and Azarbaijani environments now inherited the dynastic infrastructures of two well-established empires (the Aq Qoyunlus and Timurids) and annexed cities and territories from equally centralized polities, such as the Ottomans and the Mamluks."
[4]
[1]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids.
[2]: (Melville 1998) Melville, Charles. 1998. From the Saljuqs to the Aq Qoyunlu (ca. 1000-1500 C.E.). Iranian Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3/4 (Summer-Autumn), A Review of the "Encyclopaedia Iranica", Taylor & Francis Ltd. pp.473-482
[3]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids; E Eshraghi, ‘PERSIA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE SAFAVIDS, THE AFSHARS AND THE EARLY QAJARS’, in Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib (eds), History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. V The Sixteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Centuries (Paris: Unesco, 1992)pp. 250-75.
[4]: (Mitchell 2009, 44-45) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.
The Ak Koyunlu were "a confederation of Turkman tribes".
[1]
"Their political organization was loose."
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
The Ak Koyunlu were "a confederation of Turkman tribes".
[1]
"Their political organization was loose."
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive ’project’: Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian." [1]
[1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.
levels.
Towns and villages.
[1]
Provincial capitals: "The structure of the central administrative council was probably mirrored on a smaller scale in the provincial council of the princely appanages(huku mat, iyalat, ulka, saltanat) and the military governorships (darughagi, hukumat, iyalat). Though ulka is not, strictly speaking, a technical term for princely appanage during the Turkmen period as previously discussed, the word frequently occurs in conjunction with the term khurish, a fixed share of provincial revenues allotted to a royal prince for his upkeep. The appanage-holding prince theoretically may have been immune from interference by the central authorities, but the inhabitants could nevertheless refer their grievances against the actions of a royal prince to the sultan.65 Minor princes were usually accompanied to their appanages by their guardians, representing either the confederates or the warband, who then became chiefs of staff of the provincial councils and garrison commanders of the provincial capitals."
[2]
1. Capital. Amid until 1467-1469 when it was replaced by Tabriz.
2. Provincial capitals3. Villages4. Hamlets
"At Aleppo, the Aqquyunlu so distinguished themselves in battle that Timur allegedly rewarded Ibrahim, Qara ’Usman’s eldest son, with the city of Amid, held by Timur since its capture from al-Zahir ’Isa~Artuqi in 1394/796. This is the first reference to Aqquyunlu control of that city, which remained capital of the Principality until Uzun Hasan’s conquests of 1467-69/872-74, when it was replaced by Tabriz."
[3]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Woods 1998, 19)
[3]: (Woods 1998, 41)
levels. AD: coded as a range to reflect various possibilities in the following (tentative) hierarchy:
1. Head of Safawiya Shi’ite order at Ardabil
2. ?3. Local imam
"The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive ’project’: Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian."
[1]
Uzun Hasan r. c1453-1478 CE funded religious activities.
[2]
Uzun Hasan married a daughter to the head of the Safawiya Shi’ite order at Ardabīl. "The argument that there was a clear-cut contrast between the Sunnism of the Āq Qoyunlu and the Shiʿism of the Qara Qoyunlu and the Ṣafawiya rests mainly on later Safavid sources and must be considered doubtful."
[2]
[1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
levels.
"On parade, the Aq Qoyunlu Turkman troops were drawn up in the Turco-Mongol fashion of right wing, left wing, and center (sag wa sol wa manqalay)."
[1]
Does this suggest, also like the Mongols, they used the decimal chain-of-command?
1. Sultan
2. Chief of Personal Guard (kawass) inferred"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawāṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups."
[2]
3. Soldier in Personal Guard
2. amīr-e noʾīn (commander) 10,000s?The top commanders were called amīr-e noʾīn (Mongolian noyan “master, lord”),
3. 1,000s?"one group of the rank-and-file was called nowkars (Mongolian nökär “companion”)"
[1]
4. 100s?"the term for smaller, component units of the army (in the Timurid army, for a mere company of 50 to 100 men) was qošūn (Mongolian k/qošiḡun)"
[1]
5. 10s?
6. Soldier
[1]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
levels.
_1339-1398 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1398-1471 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type."
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy inferred4. Scribe inferred
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_
Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and "Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture."
[1]
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Vizier of the divan
[1]
"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy
3. Sadr head of "religious dignitaries"
[1]
4.5."In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.
[1]
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
levels.
_1339-1398 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1398-1471 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type."
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy inferred4. Scribe inferred
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_
Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and "Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture."
[1]
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Vizier of the divan
[1]
"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy
3. Sadr head of "religious dignitaries"
[1]
4.5."In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.
[1]
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
levels.
_1339-1398 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1398-1471 CE_
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type."
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy inferred4. Scribe inferred
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_
Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and "Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture."
[1]
1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)
"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan".
[1]
_Central government_
1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.
"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan."
[1]
2. Vizier of the divan
[1]
"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
3. Department within bureaucracy
3. Sadr head of "religious dignitaries"
[1]
4.5."In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations"
[1]
_Provincial government_
2. Amir / Tribal chief
2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.
[1]
3. Military officer in villages and towns"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army".
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawaṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups."
[1]
"land grant system practiced since Saljuq times" (Iqta system) used to pay soldiers.
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawāṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups."
[1]
This includes the chief of personal guard (kawass).
"land grant system practiced since Saljuq times" (Iqta system) used to pay soldiers.
[1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Indigenous coins are present, which implies the presence of mints.
"Simultaneously with and probably in response to this development, the central bureaucratic apparatus staffed by Iranian urban notables, many of whom had served the Qaraquyunlu Turkmens and the Timurids before the Aqquyunlu conquests, also underwent tremendous expansion and elaboration. Representatives of such important local Iranian families as the Kujuji of Azarbayjan, the Savaji of Persian Iraq, the Sa’idi of Persian Iraq and Fars, the Daylami of Persian Iraq and Gilan, and the Bayhaqi of Khurasan were appointed to supervise the administrative, fiscal, and religious affairs of the government. There is also evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize the administrative and financial procedures in this period." [1] Implies that administrative positions were given to members of elite families.
[1]: (Woods 1998, 108)
Qara Otman 1398 CE "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type." [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
Qara Otman 1398 CE "had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type." [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"Simultaneously with and probably in response to this development, the central bureaucratic apparatus staffed by Iranian urban notables, many of whom had served the Qaraquyunlu Turkmens and the Timurids before the Aqquyunlu conquests, also underwent tremendous expansion and elaboration. Representatives of such important local Iranian families as the Kujuji of Azarbayjan, the Savaji of Persian Iraq, the Sa’idi of Persian Iraq and Fars, the Daylami of Persian Iraq and Gilan, and the Bayhaqi of Khurasan were appointed to supervise the administrative, fiscal, and religious affairs of the government. There is also evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize the administrative and financial procedures in this period." [1] Implies that administrative positions were given to members of elite families.
[1]: (Woods 1998, 108)
Qazi Isa "pleaded the desirability of replacing Mongol law (yasa) with Islamic law (šarīʿa) when he abolished the tamḡā (excise on merchandise)". [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"The revenue of the Aq Qoyunlu came from taxes and dues levied on the sedentary population of Armenians, Kurds, and Arabs, as well as tolls collected along the main trade routes through eastern Anatolia." [1] General reference for Seljuk? - Safavid? time period: "The bāzār was usually, though not always, divided into a number of sūqs (markets) in which different crafts and occupations had separate quarters. At night, after members of the crafts and shopkeepers had shut their premises and retired to their homes, the gates of the bāzārs were locked and barred." [2] Grand Bazaar of Isfahan first built in the Seljuk period. "There are abundant material remains and other nonwritten sources for the Aq-quyunlu period. Metin Sözen has catalogued nearly one hundred Aqquyunlu architectural structures in almost thirty locales in Anatolia alone. These buildings include mosques, madrasas, tombs, hospices, markets, caravanserais, baths, bridges, fountains, palaces, and fortifications. Unfortunately, no similar work exists for these monuments constructed in Iran during the imperial period, many of which have now disappeared." [3]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii
[3]: (Woods 1998, 218)
"The revenue of the Aq Qoyunlu came from taxes and dues levied on the sedentary population of Armenians, Kurds, and Arabs, as well as tolls collected along the main trade routes through eastern Anatolia." [1]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
"There are abundant material remains and other nonwritten sources for the Aq-quyunlu period. Metin Sozen has catalogued nearly one hundred Aqquyunlu architectural structures in almost thirty locales in Anatolia alone. These buildings include mosques, madrasas, tombs, hospices, markets, caravanserais, baths, bridges, fountains, palaces, and fortifications. Unfortunately, no similar work exists for these monuments constructed in Iran during the imperial period, many of which have now disappeared." [1]
[1]: (Woods 1998, 218)
"Uzun Hasan patronised religious structures, encouraged religious endowments and students, including Tajik sayyids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632), and patronised the arts and sciences". [1]
[1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.
"Uzun Hasan patronised religious structures, encouraged religious endowments and students, including Tajik sayyids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632), and patronised the arts and sciences". [1] "theologian and philosopher Jalal al-Din Davani (d. 1503)". [1]
[1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.
In the 11th century and after "the genre of writing treatises on statecraft in Persian develops, such treatises usually containing advice on the organizing of armies and on the art of war." [1]
[1]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii
inferred continuity with earlier periods
" Despite the appearance in Cairo in August 1434/Muharram 838 of an Aqquyunlu envoy with a few token coins minted in al-Ashraf Barsbay’s name, the news of the resumption of Aqquyunlu raids on the Euphrates salient in conjunction with another Timurid thrust into Azarbayjan bespoke the complete failure of al-Ashraf Barsbay’s vendetta against Qara ’Usman." [1]
[1]: (Woods 1998, 53)
"Members of the warband regularly filled important posts in the sultan’s : "outer service" (birun) or ministry of court (darbar), such as the positions of chamberlain (qapuchi, eshik-aqasi),37 keeper of the seal (muhrdar), and equerry (amirakhur). They were also frequently appointed guardians (lala) to the royal princes38 and commanders (darugha) of royal garrisons in urban centers). In addition, a host of nonmilitary, non administrative service personnel including falconers, cooks, librarians, musicians, armorers, couriers, messengers, post riders, and heralds were attached to the court and thus technically considered part of the royal bodyguard." [1]
[1]: (Wells 1998, 14)
Citadel on the ridge above Urfa had stone walls: "The Mamelukes tended to use smaller stones, while the Ak Koyunlu Uzun Hasan in his rebuilding campaign of 1462-63 imitated the original masonry." [1]
[1]: Francis Russell. 2017. 123 Places In Turkey. A Private Grand Tour. Wilmington Square Books. London.
Citadel on the ridge above Urfa had stone walls: "The Mamelukes tended to use smaller stones, while the Ak Koyunlu Uzun Hasan in his rebuilding campaign of 1462-63 imitated the original masonry." [1]
[1]: Francis Russell. 2017. 123 Places In Turkey. A Private Grand Tour. Wilmington Square Books. London.
"A perhaps unexpected role that fell to Turcomans who had risen to power in the mountains of Anatolia, far from the sea, was to garrison forts along the Arabian Gulf coast to protect the rich trading links with India." [1]
[1]: (Nicolle 1990, 37) Nicolle, David. 1990. The Age of Tamerlane. Osprey Publishing.
Citadel on the ridge above Urfa had a moat and was held by the Ak Koyunlu: "The Mamelukes tended to use smaller stones, while the Ak Koyunlu Uzun Hasan in his rebuilding campaign of 1462-63 imitated the original masonry." [1]
[1]: Francis Russell. 2017. 123 Places In Turkey. A Private Grand Tour. Wilmington Square Books. London.
"This type of shield was characteristic of the cavalry of the Ak Koyunlu. It had a high steel boss and, in battle, was generally strapped to the wearer’s left arm." [1]
[1]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
The Ottomans "drove their rivals - the Ak Koyunlu and the Safavids in Persia, and the Mamluks in Egypt" to import firearms from Europe. [1] Venetians allies shipped firearms in 1473 CE [2] but do not know if they were used in battle. The Ak Koyunlu military’s "weakness was its lack of firearms" [2] but that does not mean they had no fire arms at all, as the shipment of firearms from the Venetians demonstrates. Bosworth, referring to a battle near Terǰān 1473 CE against the Ottomans, says "One significant aspect of Āq Qoyunlu military organization is their use of firearms." [3] "The sultan’s personal guard (nowkarān-e ḵāṣṣa, bōy-e nūkarān, īnāqān) had handguns" later 15th century. [3]
[1]: (Chew 2012, 32-33) Emrys Chew. 2012. Arming the Periphery: The Arms Trade in the Indian Ocean During the Age of Global Empire. PalgraveMacmillan. Houndmill.
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[3]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii
The Ottomans "drove their rivals - the Ak Koyunlu and the Safavids in Persia, and the Mamluks in Egypt" to import firearms from Europe. [1] Venetians allies shipped firearms in 1473 CE [2] but do not know if they were used in battle. The Ak Koyunlu military’s "weakness was its lack of firearms" [2] but that does not mean they had no fire arms at all, as the shipment of firearms from the Venetians demonstrates. Bosworth, referring to a battle near Terǰān 1473 CE against the Ottomans, says "One significant aspect of Āq Qoyunlu military organization is their use of firearms." [3] "The sultan’s personal guard (nowkarān-e ḵāṣṣa, bōy-e nūkarān, īnāqān) had handguns" later 15th century. [3]
[1]: (Chew 2012, 32-33) Emrys Chew. 2012. Arming the Periphery: The Arms Trade in the Indian Ocean During the Age of Global Empire. PalgraveMacmillan. Houndmill.
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[3]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii
"Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Aq Qoyunlu used captured Ottoman cannons, as well as having some locally cast ones for sieges." [1]
[1]: (? 2010, ?) Author?. 2010. Title?. David O. Morgan. Anthony Reid. ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3, The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. nb: I think it’s Reuven Amitai. Armies and their economic basis in Iran and the surrounding lands, c. 1000-1500.
"Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Aq Qoyunlu used captured Ottoman cannons, as well as having some locally cast ones for sieges." [1]
[1]: (? 2010, ?) Author?. 2010. Title?. David O. Morgan. Anthony Reid. ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3, The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. nb: I think it’s Reuven Amitai. Armies and their economic basis in Iran and the surrounding lands, c. 1000-1500.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
Archers. [1] Islamic armies of the period used a lot of horse archers, as well as cavalry with lance and sword. [2]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1] Ak Koyunlu armies had infantry and auxiliaries. [2] Islamic infantry of the period used maces and pole-arm weapons. [3]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
[2]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[3]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"Islamic swords usually straight until 11th century when Turkish cavalry sabres started to be used." [1] Islamic armies of the period used a lot of horse archers, as well as cavalry with lance and sword. [1]
[1]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
Ak Koyunlu armies had infantry and auxiliaries. [1] Islamic infantry of the period used maces and pole-arm weapons. [2]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
"The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities were bow and arrow, sword, shield, javelin, dagger, club, axe, catapult and arrade." [1]
[1]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
Cavalry was the most important force in the Ak Koyunlu army. [1] Islamic armies of the period used a lot of horse archers, as well as cavalry with lance and sword. [2] "Many of these ’Turcomans’ were probably Islamised and Turkified Mongols. These tribesmen appear almost completely to have continued the military tradition sof the Mongols, that is, the army was composed primarily of masses of disciplined light cavalry. ... The Turcoman armies, however, were smaller than their Mongol predecessers." [3]
[1]: (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
[3]: (? 2010, ?) Author?. 2010. Title?. David O. Morgan. Anthony Reid. ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3, The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. nb: I think it’s Reuven Amitai. Armies and their economic basis in Iran and the surrounding lands, c. 1000-1500.
Available in the region and could have been used as a pack animal.
Available in the region and could have been used as a pack animal.
"The Ak Koyunlu were the natural enemies of the Ottomans who, however, unwittingly aided the preservation of samples of their armour and weaponry by capturing the entire Ak Koyunlu baggage train at the battle of Otluk Beli in 1473. This equipment was shifted to the armoury of St. Irene in Istanbul." [1] "This type of shield was characteristic of the cavalry of the Ak Koyunlu. It had a high steel boss and, in battle, was generally strapped to the wearer’s left arm." [2]
[1]: 1991. Islamic and Indian Art, Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures. Sotheby’s. page 56.
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The Ak Koyunlu were the natural enemies of the Ottomans who, however, unwittingly aided the preservation of samples of their armour and weaponry by capturing the entire Ak Koyunlu baggage train at the battle of Otluk Beli in 1473. This equipment was shifted to the armoury of St. Irene in Istanbul." [1] "This mail and plate armour is characteristic of the Ak Koyunlu Turkoman". [2]
[1]: 1991. Islamic and Indian Art, Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures. Sotheby’s. page 56.
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"Between the 11th and 16th centuries, the weapons and armour of the Islamic world ... mail coat (a dir or zirh) ... Islamic helmets were most often conical, egg- or turban-shaped, and of metal or organic material." [1]
[1]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The Ak Koyunlu were the natural enemies of the Ottomans who, however, unwittingly aided the preservation of samples of their armour and weaponry by capturing the entire Ak Koyunlu baggage train at the battle of Otluk Beli in 1473. This equipment was shifted to the armoury of St. Irene in Istanbul." [1] "This mail and plate armour is characteristic of the Ak Koyunlu Turkoman". [2]
[1]: 1991. Islamic and Indian Art, Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures. Sotheby’s. page 56.
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"The Ak Koyunlu were the natural enemies of the Ottomans who, however, unwittingly aided the preservation of samples of their armour and weaponry by capturing the entire Ak Koyunlu baggage train at the battle of Otluk Beli in 1473. This equipment was shifted to the armoury of St. Irene in Istanbul." [1] "This mail and plate armour is characteristic of the Ak Koyunlu Turkoman". [2]
[1]: 1991. Islamic and Indian Art, Oriental Manuscripts and Miniatures. Sotheby’s. page 56.
[2]: (Jones ed. 2012, 92-93) Gareth Jones. ed. The Military History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Weapons that Shaped the World. Dorling Kindersley Limited. London.
"A perhaps unexpected role that fell to Turcomans who had risen to power in the mountains of Anatolia, far from the sea, was to garrison forts along the Arabian Gulf coast to protect the rich trading links with India. Aq Qoyunlu vessels plied such waters, but whether any could be regarded as warships to suppress the endemic piracy of the Gulf is again unknown." [1] "The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities ... Principalities with an outlet on the sea are believed to have had small naval forces." [2]
[1]: (Nicolle 1990, 37) Nicolle, David. 1990. The Age of Tamerlane. Osprey Publishing.
[2]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
"A perhaps unexpected role that fell to Turcomans who had risen to power in the mountains of Anatolia, far from the sea, was to garrison forts along the Arabian Gulf coast to protect the rich trading links with India. Aq Qoyunlu vessels plied such waters, but whether any could be regarded as warships to suppress the endemic piracy of the Gulf is again unknown." [1] "The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities ... Principalities with an outlet on the sea are believed to have had small naval forces." [2]
[1]: (Nicolle 1990, 37) Nicolle, David. 1990. The Age of Tamerlane. Osprey Publishing.
[2]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.
"A perhaps unexpected role that fell to Turcomans who had risen to power in the mountains of Anatolia, far from the sea, was to garrison forts along the Arabian Gulf coast to protect the rich trading links with India. Aq Qoyunlu vessels plied such waters, but whether any could be regarded as warships to suppress the endemic piracy of the Gulf is again unknown." [1] "The weapons used in the military forces of the Anatolian Principalities ... Principalities with an outlet on the sea are believed to have had small naval forces." [2]
[1]: (Nicolle 1990, 37) Nicolle, David. 1990. The Age of Tamerlane. Osprey Publishing.
[2]: (1994, 365) Ibrahim Kafesoglu. Ahmet Edip Uysal. Erdogan Mercil. Hidayet Yavuz Nuhoglu. 1994. A short history of Turkish-Islamic states (excluding the Ottoman state). Turkish Historical Society Printing House.