The Habr Yunis Sultanate was originally part of the Isaaq Sultanate or clan group that began roughly around the fourteenth century with the arrival of Sheikh Isaq, (the founder of the Isaaq Somali people) from the Arabian Peninsula. [1] By the mid-nineteenth century along with Habr Awal and Habr Jeclo, Habr Yunis broke away from the Isaaq to create its own sultanate. The Habr Yunis controlled trade around the Zeila and Berbera ports on the northwest Somali coast. [2] By the late nineteenth century, Habr Yunis was absorbed into British Somaliland officially ending the sultanate. [3]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
[2]: (Bridges 1986, 682-683) Bridges, Roy. 1986. ‘The Visit of Frederick Forbes to the Somali Coast in 1833.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 19:4. Pp 679-691. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G3PNH843/collection
[3]: (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection
| Year Range | Habr Yunis (so_habr_yunis) was in: |
|---|
The following quote does not give an exact date of the origin of the Isaaq Sultanate but gives an approximation. “But the first major impetus to Somali migration which tradition records is the arrival from Arabia of Sheikh Isma’il Jabarti about the tenth or eleventh century and the expansion of his descendants, the Darod clans, from their early seat in the north-east corner of Somaliland. This cannot be dated with certainty, but the period suggested here accords well with the sequence of subsequent events. It was followed perhaps some two centuries later by the arrival from Arabia or Sheikh Isaq, founder of the Isaq Somali, who settled to the west of the Darod at Mait where his domed tomb stands today, and who like his predecessor Darod, married with the local Dir Somali.” [1] “This statement demonstrated [that the United Kingdom] did not regard the tribes of Somaliland, with which it had concluded the Agreements in 1886, as sovereign, or even as part-sovereign, entities which could be recognised as persons in international law but that it considered them as no more than subjects of the British Crown.” [2] It is important to note, that while Habr Yunis was part of the Isaaq Sultanate, it did however break from Isaaq in the mid-nineteenth century along with Habr Awal and Habr Jeclo due to internal conflict and disputes regarding trade routes. “The key figure among the Somalis in this affair was Haji Shirmarke Ali Salih (d.1861) who had begun his long and remarkable career as the friend and unofficial agent of the British by rescuing the survivors of the Mary Ann in 1825 […] The fact that Leigh’s 1838 journal fails to mention him may mean that he had temporarily lost influence in Berbera and was concentrating his activities upon Zeila, of which he was to become governor (for the Turkish Empire)in about 1843. But even after this Shirmarke was deeply involved in Berbera affairs intervening in disputes among the lineages of the Habr Awal clan section for supremacy in the port. Shirmarke himself claimed direct decent from the founder of the great Isaq clan group and was the dominant political figure (although not the titular hereditary leader) of the Habr Yunis (Girhajis) clan. By the time of Burton’s expedition, all the Awal had come to dislike Shirmarke, it seems. This was probably because he had tried to make Zeila rather than Berbera the main outlet for the Harar caravan trade.” [3]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
[2]: (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection
[3]: (Bridges 1986, 682-683) Bridges, Roy. 1986. ‘The Visit of Frederick Forbes to the Somali Coast in 1833.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 19:4. Pp 679-691. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G3PNH843/collection
“This statement demonstrated [that the United Kingdom] did not regard the tribes of Somaliland, with which it had concluded the Agreements in 1886, as sovereign, or even as part-sovereign, entities which could be recognised as persons in international law but that it considered them as no more than subjects of the British Crown.” [1]
[1]: (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection
It is important to note, that while Habr Yunis was part of the Isaaq Sultanate, it did however break from Isaaq in the mid-nineteenth century along with Habr Awal and Habr Jeclo due to internal conflict and disputes regarding trade routes. “The key figure among the Somalis in this affair was Haji Shirmarke Ali Salih (d.1861) who had begun his long and remarkable career as the friend and unofficial agent of the British by rescuing the survivors of the Mary Ann in 1825 […] The fact that Leigh’s 1838 journal fails to mention him may mean that he had temporarily lost influence in Berbera and was concentrating his activities upon Zeila, of which he was to become governor (for the Turkish Empire)in about 1843. But even after this Shirmarke was deeply involved in Berbera affairs intervening in disputes among the lineages of the Habr Awal clan section for supremacy in the port. Shirmarke himself claimed direct decent from the founder of the great Isaq clan group and was the dominant political figure (although not the titular hereditary leader) of the Habr Yunis (Girhajis) clan. By the time of Burton’s expedition, all the Awal had come to dislike Shirmarke, it seems. This was probably because he had tried to make Zeila rather than Berbera the main outlet for the Harar caravan trade.” [1]
[1]: (Bridges 1986, 682-683) Bridges, Roy. 1986. ‘The Visit of Frederick Forbes to the Somali Coast in 1833.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 19:4. Pp 679-691. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G3PNH843/collection
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.” [1] “The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…” [2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library
[2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.” [1] “The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…” [2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library
[2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list
“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list
The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
levels. 1.Sultan :“In the Habr Yunis country, however, he was joined by Madar Hirsi, the rival of Sultan Nur for the Sultanship of the Habr Yunis and his party…” [1] :2. Vizier/close advisor (inferred from similar polities) ::3. Lesser court officials (inferred from similar polities) :::4. Provincial governor ::::“Zeila’s governor was now a Somali, Haji Shirmarke ‘Ali Salih (of the Habar Yunis clan), who had begun his remarkable career as the captain of a training dhow.” [2] ::::5. Secretary to provincial governor :::::“His ‘secretary’ was a Swahili slave; and although he was himself illiterate, his eldest son Muhammad, married to an Arab woman, had been educated at Mukha and proved to be something of a scholar.” [2] :::::6. Lesser provincial officials (inferred from similar polities) ::::::7. Aqils :::::::Aqils were tribal elders or chiefs. The British however mistook Aqils for ruling chiefs though they did not have ruling authority. “They believed that Aqils (chiefs) ran traditional Somali society, and that they ran it along ‘tribal’ lines.” [3]
[1]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection
[2]: (Lewis 2002, 33) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
[3]: (Mohamed 2007, 229) Mohamed, Jama. 2007. ‘Kinship and Contract in Somali Politics’. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. Vol. 77:2. Pp 226-249. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CG5PRA8P/collection
“The kadi administering Islamic law was at this time a Hawiye Somali whose predecessors, from about 1670, had been sayyids from Arabia.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 33) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Sha afi Law. “With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list
The following quotes suggest that Islamic courts were likely present. “With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1] “The kadi administering Islamic law was at this time a Hawiye Somali whose predecessors, from about 1670, had been sayyids from Arabia.” [2]
[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list
[2]: (Lewis 2002, 33) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
The following quote suggests that markets were likely present as the Habr Yunis had a thriving trading network. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Wells. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Mosques. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Wells. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
The following quote suggests that roads were likely present as the Habr Yunis had caravan routes and thriving trade networks. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Zeila. “Zeila’s governor was now a Somali, Haji Shirmarke ‘Ali Salih (of the Habar Yunis clan), who had begun his remarkable career as the captain of a training dhow.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 33) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
The following quote suggests that trading emporia were likely present as Habr Yunis had caravan routes and thriving trade networks. The population numbers are an approximation and do not represent a definitive number. “The dimensions of Zeila Burton compares to Suez, sufficient to hold a few thousand inhabitants, and provided with six mosques, a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and two hundred or more thatched mud – and-wattle huts. The ancient wall of coral rubble and mud defending the town was no longer fortified with guns, and in many places had become dilapidated. Drinking water had to be fetched from wells four miles from the town. Yet trade was thriving: to the north caravans plied the Danakil country, while to the west the lands of the ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans were traversed as far as Harar, and beyond Harar to the Gurage country in Abyssinia. The main exports were slaves, ivory hides, horns, ghee, and guns. On the coast itself Arab divers were active collecting sponge cones and provisions were cheap.” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2002, 34) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection
Ceremonial site and burial site. “Saints are historical personalities widely respected and even venerated by Somalis for their personal piety, miraculous works, or contribution to the spread of Islamic learning. Their tombs, which dot the countryside, are frequently the sites of annual religious celebrations held to commemorate the life and work of the deceased saint.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 120) Cassanelli, Lee. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lee/titleCreatorYear/items/TKPH7Z89/item-list
“Saints are historical personalities widely respected and even venerated by Somalis for their personal piety, miraculous works, or contribution to the spread of Islamic learning. Their tombs, which dot the countryside, are frequently the sites of annual religious celebrations held to commemorate the life and work of the deceased saint.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 120) Cassanelli, Lee. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lee/titleCreatorYear/items/TKPH7Z89/item-list
“Saints are historical personalities widely respected and even venerated by Somalis for their personal piety, miraculous works, or contribution to the spread of Islamic learning. Their tombs, which dot the countryside, are frequently the sites of annual religious celebrations held to commemorate the life and work of the deceased saint.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 120) Cassanelli, Lee. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lee/titleCreatorYear/items/TKPH7Z89/item-list
Written Arabic genealogies of Somali lineage were held by Sheikhs. “Only the Shaykhs maintained written Arabic manuscripts that recorded the genealogical connections at the highest levels, among various clan founders.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 129) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library
Written Arabic genealogies of Somali lineage were held by Sheikhs. “Only the Shaykhs maintained written Arabic manuscripts that recorded the genealogical connections at the highest levels, among various clan founders.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 129) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library
The Arabic writing system is phonetic. “The first obvious indication of such interest would be that given by the evidence of attempts to write the language, for if different signs were used to designate different sounds there was at least sufficient phonetic interest present to distinguish one speech-sound from another.” [1]
[1]: (Semaan 1968, 6) Semaan, Khalil I. 1968. Linguistics in the Middle Ages: Phonetic Studies in Early Islam. Leiden: Brill Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Semaan/titleCreatorYear/items/U3W57I6B/item-list
Quran. “A vistor will not venture too far into the countryside before encountering a small circle of children sitting under a tree reciting verses from the Quran with a bearded Shaykh; […]” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 119) Cassanelli, Lee. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lee/titleCreatorYear/items/TKPH7Z89/item-list
The following quote suggests that religious literature was likely present. “With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date and remain staunch Muslims (Sunnis, of the Sha afi School of Law).” [1]
[1]: (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]
[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list
"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties." [1]
[1]: (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list
"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties." [1]
[1]: (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list
Islamic calendar. “The twelve months of the Islamic calendar, in order are as follows (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rab’I al-Awwal; (4) Rab’i al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada ‘l-Ula; (6) Jumada ‘l-Akhira; (7) Rajab (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’-Qa’da and (12) Dhu ‘l Hijja.” [1]
[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Medieval Islamic Civilizations: A-K, Index. By Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Dates%20and%20Calendars/titleCreatorYear/items/8BDKDQRX/item-list
“Local Somali saints were often associate with the mystical science of astrology. “From these and other accounts it is clear that the religion of the saints was associated in the popular mind with the practices of astrology, divination and magic.” [1]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 187) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library
"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties." [1]
[1]: (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list
"Islam was unifying element in much of the Indian Ocean, especially on both sides—the east African coast and the Malay world. The east African societies relied on Islam to help create their world since their identity derived not only from commercial links with co-religionists but on specific modes of social and commercial behavior. The Muslim religion gave prescriptions as to everyday conduct. The Koran had specific admonitions on fair practice in the market place. The Koranic injunction to have balance scales led to the appearance of a market inspector called the muhtash whose specific job was to oversee local transactions and check weights and measures among other duties." [1]
[1]: (Rothman 2002: 80) Rothman, Norman C. 2002. “Indian Ocean Trading Links: The Swahili Experience,” Comparative Civilizations Review. Vol 46:6. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Rothman/titleCreatorYear/items/3WJ42ET7/item-list