Home Region: Turkestan (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Koktepe II

750 BCE 550 BCE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 uz_koktepe_2 / UzKok02

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

1000 BCE 521 BCE Ancient Khwarazm (uz_khwarasm_1) [population replacement]

Succeeding Entity:

No Polity found. Add one here.

General Description

Rapin and Isamiddinov say that beginning in the 7th or 6th century BCE, we see a ’proto-urbaine’ (proto-urban) structure developing at Koktepe, represented by two large fortified areas on platforms. They assign an economic-political function to area A and a sacred one to area B, ^[1] and speculate that they could be the work of sedentary Scythians. ^[2] The cultural context of Koktepe during this period differs from that of eastern Central Asia, as represented by the citadel of Ulug Depe. ^[2]
There may be a case, based on similarities in architectural construction, for treating the areas around Samarkand and Padajatak-tepa (near modern-day Shahr-i Sabz) as part of this polity during this period. In an article on Samarkand, Grenet comments: ’C’est donc avec une totale surprise que, en 1991, la fouille mettait en évidence, partout sous les remparts achéménides tant de l’acropole que du plateau, un premier mur épais de 6 mètres relevant d’une tradition défensive et d’une technique différente: non à galerie intérieure, mais massif; bâti non en briques crues rectangulaires de gabarit régulier, mais en briques ovales plus grossières, "plano-convexes". Il apparaît maintenant que ce type de maçonnerie caractérise sur d’autres sites aussi la toute première phase de la construction urbaine dans les plaines de Sogdiane (Koktepe à 30 km au nord de Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, la Nautaca des campagnes d’Alexandre, en Sogdiane méridionale près de Shahr-i Sabz) et dans leur appendice ferghanien (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)’ [It was thus a total surprise when, in 1991, the excavation revealed, throughout the site beneath the Achaemenid ramparts of the acropolis as well as the plateau, a thick earlier wall of 6 metres, related to a different defensive tradition and a different technique: not with an interior gallery, but solid; built not with adobe bricks of a regular size, but of rougher oval-shaped, "plano-convex" bricks. It now appears that this type of masonry also characterizes the very first phase of urban construction at other sites of the Sogdian plain (Koktepe, 30 km north of Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, the Nautaca of Alexander’s campaigns, in southern Sogdiana near Shahr-i Sabz) and its Ferganian neighbour (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)]. ^[3]
"The transition between the period of the painted pottery (Koktepe I) and the period of the monumental courtyards (Koktepe II) needs further research, as the differences betwen the north-eastern and south-western trends of the early Iron Age cultures still need explanation." ^[4]
With regard to the transition between Koktepe I and II, Rapin and Isamiddinov say that the first centuries of the 1st millennium BCE are represented throughout the site by an ’épaisse couche organique’ [thick organic layer], suggesting that ’cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail’ [this period could have been one of a semi-sedentary population, perhaps quite numerous, which would have been established at Koktepe with cattle]. ^[1]
According to Claude Rapin, for "the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia" read this (and another 2001 work)
Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l’Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.
JR: Much of the literature on Iron Age Koktepe is in Russian. See the bibliography compiled by Claude Rapin here (pp. 6-7): ^[5]

??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I
1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap
750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II "sacred courtyard area" "strongly fortified courtyards" ^[6]
550 - ??? BCE Scythians? "nomadic establishment" ^[6]
??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa "totally different expression of monumental urbanism" ^[6] - could be Archaemenid
"not impossible that the nomad layers ... and the platforms of Koktepe ... could correspond to the period of the Persian invasion and the organization of the eastern part of the empire by Darius I." ^[7]
Koktepe IIIa
"The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site." ^[6]
"this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap." ^[6]
"The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction." ^[7]
"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. ^[8]
Edward Turner’s interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):
’The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the "strongly fortified courtyards" is a manifestation of this tension.
another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:
"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns".
then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)
if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.
an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.
their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE’.

[1]: (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. ’Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe’. Cahiers d’Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736.

[2]: (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. ’Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe’. Cahiers d’Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736.

[3]: (Grenet 2004, 1052-53) Frantz Grenet. 2004. ’Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole: Sources écrites et archéologie’. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 59e Année, No. 5/6, Asie centrale: 1043-67.

[4]: (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[5]: http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf.

[6]: (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[7]: (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[8]: (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology)

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

2 Capital

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Priesthood

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Knowledge Or Information Building

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

Special-purpose Sites

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2) was in:
(750 BCE 600 BCE)	Sogdiana

Home NGA: Sogdiana

General Variables

Identity and Location Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	42 S	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Original Name	Koktepe II	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Capital	Afrasiab-Samarkand	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Capital	Koktepe	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[750 BCE ➜ 550 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Succeeding Entity	NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	population migration	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Preceding Entity 1000 BCE 521 BCE	Ancient Khwarazm (uz_khwarasm_1) [population replacement]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Language Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Language	Ancient Iranian	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Religion Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[10,000 to 40,000] people	750 BCE 600 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[1 to 2]	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Religious Level	1	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Administrative Level	[2 to 3]	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Professions Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Priesthood	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Examination System	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Law Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Judge	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Court	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Irrigation System	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Knowledge Or Information Building	Uncoded Undecided	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Port	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Canal	Uncoded Undecided	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Information / Writing System Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Script	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Uncoded Undecided	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Sacred Text	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Religious Literature	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Practical Literature	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Philosophy	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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History	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Fiction	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Calendar	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Information / Money Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Paper Currency	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Article	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Information / Postal System Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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General Postal Service	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Military use of Metals Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Iron	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Copper	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Bronze	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Projectiles Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Self Bow	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Crossbow	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Handheld weapons Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Sword	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Spear	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Polearm	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Dagger	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Battle Axe	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Elephant	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Donkey	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Camel	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Armor Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Shield	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Plate Armor	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Limb Protection	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Helmet	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Chainmail	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Breastplate	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Naval technology Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Unknown	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Unknown	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Transitional (Absent -> Present)	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent Inferred	750 BCE 550 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Koktepe II (uz_koktepe_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More