This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity’s end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony.
[1]
Population and political organization
In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime.
[2]
Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan’s council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the qadi al-qudat (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.
The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, ’[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague’.
[3]
However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.
[1]: (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. ’Morocco’. In General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann.
[2]: (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld.
[3]: (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld.
| Arabic | |
| Islamic |
| Alaouite Dynasty |
| [4,500,000 to 5,000,000] km2 |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] |
| unitary state |
| 125,000 people |
| 447,000 km2 | 1554 CE 1591 CE |
| 476,000 km2 | 1591 CE 1618 CE |
| 447,000 km2 | 1618 CE 1659 CE |
| [2,000,000 to 3,000,000] people |
| unknown |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| Year Range | Saadi Sultanate (ma_saadi_sultanate) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1591 CE 1618 CE) | Niger Inland Delta |
Morocco conquered the Niger Inland Delta in 1591
[1]
The reign of Ahmad Al-Mansur was characterised by internal stability, greater prosperity (due to the revival of the sugar industry), lack of external threat (due to Morocco’s decisive victory against Portugal in the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578), and territorial expansion (most notably, in the Niger Inland Delta)
[1]
. Moreover, at this time a number of prominent Islamic scholars produced important works--most notably, Ahmad Baba wrote a collection of biographies on medieval Islamic scholars, and a seminal legal treaty on legal issues surrounding slavery
[2]
.
[1]: M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232
[2]: N. Creighton, Ahmad Baba al-Massufi al-Tinbukti, in E.K. Akyeampong and H.L. Gates, Jr. (eds), Dictionary of African Biography (2012), pp. 124-125
1554 is the year that the whole of Morocco was united under the rule of the Saadi--previously, it had been divided between the latter and the Wattasid-Marinid dynasty--while 1659 is the year the last Saadi ruler was assassinated [1] .
[1]: M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232
In core region, Morocco, preceding polity was the Principality of Saadi.
In core region, Morocco, preceding polity was the Principality of Saadi.
Inhabitants. Estimate for Marrakesh in 1600 CE [1]
[1]: Chase-Dunn spreadsheet (2011), available at Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet
in squared kilometers. 446,550: 1554-1591 CE; 476,000: 1591-1618 CE; 446,500: 1618-1659 CE. For the period before the conquest of the Niger Inland Delta, the Sultanate’s limits "coincide[d] with the borders of the present-day Morocco" [1] . For the period between 1591 and 1618, the area of the Niger Inland Delta is added. Once the Sultanate lost control of the Delta, it is inferred that it returned to covering more or less the same area of modern-day Morocco.
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 40
in squared kilometers. 446,550: 1554-1591 CE; 476,000: 1591-1618 CE; 446,500: 1618-1659 CE. For the period before the conquest of the Niger Inland Delta, the Sultanate’s limits "coincide[d] with the borders of the present-day Morocco" [1] . For the period between 1591 and 1618, the area of the Niger Inland Delta is added. Once the Sultanate lost control of the Delta, it is inferred that it returned to covering more or less the same area of modern-day Morocco.
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 40
in squared kilometers. 446,550: 1554-1591 CE; 476,000: 1591-1618 CE; 446,500: 1618-1659 CE. For the period before the conquest of the Niger Inland Delta, the Sultanate’s limits "coincide[d] with the borders of the present-day Morocco" [1] . For the period between 1591 and 1618, the area of the Niger Inland Delta is added. Once the Sultanate lost control of the Delta, it is inferred that it returned to covering more or less the same area of modern-day Morocco.
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 40
People. 1591-1618: no data. [2,000,000-3,000,000]: 1554-1591 CE; [2,000,000-3,000,000]: 1618-1659 CE. The figure of 3 million inhabitants corresponds to the earliest available population estimate for Morocco: this estimate dates to the early twentieth century, but "[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague" [1] . The population must have risen with the annexation of the Niger Inland Delta, but no demographic data could be found regarding the latter.
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 41
levels.
There were, apparently, three hierarchical levels in Sufi brotherhoods
[1]
:
1. Sheikh
2. Marabout
3. Novice
However, Sufi brotherhoods were only one aspect of Islamic practice in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Morocco
[2]
, and indeed Islam does not technically have a priestly hierarchy
[3]
.
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-51
[2]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 50-54
[3]: J. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire (2003), p. lv
levels.
1. Sultan
2. Sultan’s personal guardMostly made up of Renegades
[1]
2. WazirAlso known as the viceroy, governor of Fez, crown prince, or vizir
[2]
.
3. Vice-wazirDirectly supervised higher officers
[2]
.
4. Higher officersThe sultan’s other sons, brothers and relatives with command over the cavalry, firearm forces and the Sultan’s personal guard
[2]
.
5. Lesser officersNot mentioned by sources but implied by the sources’ mention of "higher officers"
[2]
.
6. Regular soldiers
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 55-57
[2]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58
levels.
1. Sultan
The Saadis had an Ottoman-style palace government ruled by a Sultan.
[1]
_Central government_
2. WazirAlso known as the viceroy, governor of Fez, crown prince, or vizir
[2]
.
2. Sultan’s councilComprising the chancellor of the seal, the chancellor in charge of protocol and ceremony, one in charge of the Sultan’s horses and camels, and one in charge of administration and division of rents and taxes
[2]
3. bureaucrat in charge of rents inferred level4. Scribe or sub-manager
3. bureaucrat in charge of taxes inferred level4. Scribe or sub-manager inferred level5. Tax collector
[3]
2. First secretaryHead of Sultan’s council, secretary of state, majordomo, treasurer
[2]
2. Qadi al-qudatThe main qadi, head of the judiciary, whose task it was to assign qadis to different cities and regions
[2]
.
Petty bureaucrats
Tax collectors, clerics, secretaries, and qadis
[3]
.
_Regional government_
2.
3.
4.
[1]: (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld.
[2]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 57-58
[3]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), pp. 48-58
"Muley Ahmad was a ‘modern’ monarch with an interest in novelties, from whatever source. In both European and Moroccan chronicles, he emerges as a man with an interest in knowledge, intellectually curious and with a well-trained memory. He received an extensive education in Islamic religious and secular sciences, including theology, law, poetry, grammar, lexicography, exegesis, geometry, arithmetics and algebra, and astronomy. " [1]
[1]: (García-Arenal 2008, 35)
"Muley Ahmad was a ‘modern’ monarch with an interest in novelties, from whatever source. In both European and Moroccan chronicles, he emerges as a man with an interest in knowledge, intellectually curious and with a well-trained memory. He received an extensive education in Islamic religious and secular sciences, including theology, law, poetry, grammar, lexicography, exegesis, geometry, arithmetics and algebra, and astronomy. " [1]
[1]: (García-Arenal 2008, 35)
Al-Mansur secluded himself within his palace, even concealing himself behind a curtain when giving an audience. To placate religious leaders and maintain his standing as a sharif, he hosted large official ceremonies on the feast of Muhammad’s birthday. These would include the recitation of poetry in honor of the prophet - and the sultan- along with generous gift-giving by the sultan. Al-Mansur was famous for his love of poetry and books. Though Marrakech was a Berber city, the Sa’adians welcomed Arab poetry and scholarship." [1]
[1]: (Ring et al 1996, 471)
A parapet walk corresponding to the ramparts is mentioned by Sagir al-Ifrani. A squad of qabdjiya walked along it every night. "Chaque nuit, une escouade de qabdjiya montait la garde et parcourait le chemin de ronde des remparts qui entouraient la ville." [1]
[1]: (Mohammed Sagir al-Ifrani translated by Houdas 1889, 197)
Islamic polities in the West Mediterranean seem to have been well acquainted with fine steel: Al-Zuhri, writing in the 12th century CE, "said that Seville produces ’Indian steel’." [1]
[1]: (Williams 2012, 35) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.
Rifles and harquebuses. [1] . Sultanate of Banu Wattas (Wattasid Sultanate) in Morocco between 1465-1554 CE: "Then, in the 1490s, despite the belittling comments of European observers, we again get glimpses of Moroccan gunpowder weapons in action, starting with a mention by Africanus that the Wattasid Sultan installed 100 makhzan arquebusiers at Larache after the Graciosa campaign. ... Also, in Morocco’s deep south, beyond the reach of both Portuguese imperial order and Wattasid makhzan, Leo found a new development - the proliferation of firearms among tribes and polities who would submit to neither Lisbon nor Fez nor any other aspiring outside dominator." [2]
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 56
[2]: Sandra Alvarez. February 23, 2014. Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400-1492. Weston F. Cook Jr. War and Society: v.11 (1993). Site accessed 24 October 2018: http://deremilitari.org/2014/02/warfare-and-firearms-in-fifteenth-century-morocco-1400-1492/
Low-calibre cannon. [1] . Reference for earlier polity in the region: "The battle of Ma’mura, in which the Portuguese naval and land forces were dealt a severe defeat, indicated that the Moroccan state was modernizing its military forces." [2] By the time of the 1456 CE siege of Ceuta the Marinids (earlier polity) "possessed a distinct, fulltime artillery corps." [3] "Morocco’s first foundry did not appear until the 1530s." [3]
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 57
[2]: (Ilahiane 2006, 139) Hsain Ilahiane. 2006. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Scarecrow Press. Lanham.
[3]: Sandra Alvarez. February 23, 2014. Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400-1492. Weston F. Cook Jr. War and Society: v.11 (1993). Site accessed 24 October 2018: http://deremilitari.org/2014/02/warfare-and-firearms-in-fifteenth-century-morocco-1400-1492/
Reference for 1456 CE siege of Ceuta (Marinid Sultanate): "Crossbowmen served with the crews to fire on the walls, forcing the Portuguese to shelter their own gun emplacements so that they could not target Moroccan positions as well." [1]
[1]: Sandra Alvarez. February 23, 2014. Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400-1492. Weston F. Cook Jr. War and Society: v.11 (1993). Site accessed 24 October 2018: http://deremilitari.org/2014/02/warfare-and-firearms-in-fifteenth-century-morocco-1400-1492/
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
Present in Egypt at this time [1] - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
[1]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Present in Egypt at this time [1] - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
[1]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Present in Egypt at this time [1] - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
[1]: (Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.
[1] 1000-1650 CE period: "Mail was common in North Africa among the Berbers and Moors." [2]
[1]: M. García-Arenal, Ahmad Al-Mansur: The beginnings of modern Morocco (2009), p. 56
[2]: (Nolan 2006, 27) Cathal J Nolan. 2006. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 1 A - K. Greenwood Press. Westport.
Present. [1] Did this reference provide any more detail? Reference for earlier polity in the region: "The battle of Ma’mura, in which the Portuguese naval and land forces were dealt a severe defeat, indicated that the Moroccan state was modernizing its military forces." [2]
[1]: M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232
[2]: (Ilahiane 2006, 139) Hsain Ilahiane. 2006. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Scarecrow Press. Lanham.
"The state budgets of the 16th century were not designed to sustain the expense of the continuous upkeep of large professional navies. Use was therefore made of the private profit motive. Individual adventurers, known as privateers or corsairs, were authorised to equip and man armed vessels. These might then attack the shipping of states with which the government of their owners was at war and make a profit from disposing of the booty taken. The proceeds were divided in legally fixed proportions between the owner, the government, the officers, and the crew; in this way war was made to pay for itself. In national emergencies this shipping and the crews formed a reserve for enlarging such regular forces as the state might possess. Captured privateers enjoyed the rights of prisoners of war. The finance might be provided by the monarch himself, by individuals, or by a syndicate. Officially such activities could only be carried on with previous permission of some national authority, against shipping belonging to enemies of the state and in accordance with internationally recognised conventions, modified or amplified by bilateral treaties between the states concerned." [1]
[1]: (Barbour 1969, 99) Nevill Barbour. North West Africa From the 15th to 19th Centuries. H K Kissling. F R C Bagley. N Barbour. J S Trimingham. H Braun. B Spuler. H Hartel. eds. 1969. The Muslim World. A Historical Survey. Part III. The Last Great Muslim Empires. EJ BRILL. Leiden.