Home Region: West Africa (Africa)

Middle Wagadu Empire

700 CE 1077 CE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 mr_wagadu_2 / MrWagdM

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General Description

The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it ’Wagadu’, ^[1] and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as ’Awkar’. ^[2] Spreading east and north from the Senegal River into modern-day Mauritania and Mali, ^[3] this polity started growing as a confederation from the 6th century CE. ^[4] From the 8th century onwards, geographers from North Africa and Spain such as Ibn Hawqal began to document the existence of Ghana in Arabic texts, fantasizing about its gold and resources. ^[5] The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: ^[6] ^[7] at this stage, its influence spread over Awdaghust (or Aoudaghost) in the Sahara ^[8] and it encroached on the Niger Inland Delta. ^[9] ^[10]
Population and political organization
The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. ^[11] The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. ^[12] Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. ^[12] These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. ^[13]
This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. ^[14] Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, ^[14] the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. ^[14] All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. ^[13] Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. ^[15]
Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. ^[16] Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. ^[16]

[1]: (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[2]: (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge.

[3]: (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[4]: Susan K. McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh. n.d. ’Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city’. Available online at http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500.)

[5]: (Conrad 2005, 11) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[6]: (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge.

[7]: (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[8]: (Conrad 2010, 32-33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

[9]: (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[10]: (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. L’Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï). Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l’Académie d’Aix-Marseille.

[11]: (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File.

[12]: (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[13]: (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine.

[14]: (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[15]: (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. ’Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations’, in Histoire Générale de l’Afrique, Vol. 3: L’Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO.

[16]: (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books.

General Variables

Identity and Location

2 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

9 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

1 Occupational Complexity

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

2 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

2 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

2 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

2 Limb Protection

2 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

2 Helmet

2 Chainmail

2 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2) was in:
(1000 CE 1077 CE)	Niger Inland Delta

Home NGA: Niger Inland Delta

General Variables

Identity and Location Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	30 P	700 CE 1077 CE
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Utm Zone	30 Q	700 CE 1077 CE
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Original Name	Ghana Empire I	700 CE 1077 CE
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Capital	Kumbi Saleh	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Wagadu Middle Period	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Ghana	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Kingdom of Ghana	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Ghana Empire	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Cisse Dynasty	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Soninke state	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Awkar	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Janawa	700 CE 1077 CE
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Alternative Name	Aoukar	700 CE 1077 CE
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Temporal Bounds Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	[1025 CE ➜ 1050 CE]
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Duration	[700 CE ➜ 1077 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---]	700 CE 1077 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Mande	700 CE 1077 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Ghana II	700 CE 1077 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	700 CE 1077 CE
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Preceding Entity	continuity; Wagadu [continuity] Update here
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	700 CE 1077 CE
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Language Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI	700 CE 1077 CE
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Language	Mande	700 CE 1077 CE
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Religion Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[15,000 to 20,000] people	700 CE 1077 CE
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Polity Territory	[350,000 to 400,000] km²	700 CE 1077 CE
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Polity Population	[1,000,000 to 1,250,000] people	700 CE 1077 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	4	700 CE 1077 CE
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Religious Level	[2 to 3]	700 CE 1077 CE
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Military Level	[3 to 4]	700 CE 1077 CE
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Administrative Level	4	700 CE 1077 CE
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Professions Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Occupational Complexity	Uncoded Undecided	700 CE 1077 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Merit Promotion	Uncoded Undecided	700 CE 1077 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Law Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Judge	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Court	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Port	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Canal	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Information / Writing System Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Script	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Sacred Text	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Religious Literature	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Practical Literature	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Philosophy	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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History	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Fiction	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Calendar	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Information / Money Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Paper Currency	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present Disputed	700 CE 1077 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent Disputed	700 CE 1077 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Article	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Information / Postal System Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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General Postal Service	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Courier	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Information / Measurement System Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Earth Rampart	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Long Wall	unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Military use of Metals Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Iron	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Copper	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Bronze	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Projectiles Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Self Bow	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Composite Bow	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Atlatl	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Handheld weapons Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Sword	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Spear	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Dagger	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Battle Axe	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Animals used in warfare Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Elephant	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Dog	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Camel	Present Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Armor Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Shield	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Scaled Armor	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Plate Armor	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Limb Protection	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Limb Protection	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Leather Cloth	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	700 CE 1077 CE
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Helmet	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Helmet	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Chainmail	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Chainmail	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Breastplate	Present Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Breastplate	Absent Uncertain	700 CE 1077 CE
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Naval technology Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent Inferred	700 CE 1077 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	700 CE 1077 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Absent	700 CE 1077 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Unknown	700 CE 1077 CE
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Human Sacrifice Middle Wagadu Empire (mr_wagadu_2)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More