Home Region: Northeast Africa (Africa)

Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III

1412 CE 1517 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 eg_mamluk_sultanate_3 / EgMamBu

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1348 CE 1412 CE Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II (eg_mamluk_sultanate_2) [continuity]

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General Description

During the Burji period of the Mamluk Sultanate, Egypt was ruled by an elite ’slave’ military caste of Circassian origin. These rulers had replaced the earlier Bahri Dynasty, of Turkish origin, in 1382 CE during the preceding ’crisis phase’. With the assassination of Sultan Faraj in 1412 CE, Mamluk Egypt entered a ’relative recovery’ with ’periods of brilliance’, although problems such as demographic stagnation did not disappear. ^[1] The most renowned of the rulers were the Sultans Barsbay and Qaytbay, but they did little to prevent the deterioration of the Mamluk institutions and the economic collapse and disorder that preceded the Ottoman takeover. ^[2] We begin our Burji Mamluk period in 1412 and end it with the fall of the dynasty to Ottoman forces in 1517. ^[3]
Population and political organization
Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, ^[4] the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign ’slave-elite’ that had to be constantly replaced by new ’slave’ recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. ^[5] In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. ^[6] Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was ’granted according to precise rules’, succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which ’seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence’ all jostled for prominence. ^[7] Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. ^[8]
The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the na’ib al-saltana. ^[9] The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through ’iqta holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, ^[10] as well as more formally through the na’ib, governor of a mamlaka administrative district. ^[11] The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of ’judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy’. ^[12] In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called qadi (pl. qudah), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw wulah (sg. wali) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. ^[13]
Although struck by plague and famines during the crisis period, Cairo was never short of people: a lower-bound estimate of its resident population places it at about 150,000 people. ^[9] The population of the sultanate perhaps recovered slightly in this period, reaching about 6 million in 1500 CE. ^[14]
Infrastructure and Public Services
Like previous Mamluk rulers, the Burji Sultans expended considerable resources on public works projects - both directly and indirectly via patronage. They built and restored schools, hostels, bathhouses and mosques, and, under Sultan Qayt Bey (reigned 1468‒1496) in particular, arts and architecture flourished. ^[15] The El Muayyad Mosque (1420 CE), the Mosque of Barsbay (1425 CE), ^[16] and the mausoleum complex of Sultan Qaitbay (1468‒1496 CE) all date from this period. Cairo also had a water supply system, paid for by its users, that conducted water from the Nile to the city’s streets and houses. ^[17] Waqf (religious foundations) were set up through initial endowments in property with the intention that they would become self-funding. Many public baths, caravanserais and shops were built by charitable and religious foundations, ^[18] often in combination with initial patronage from the sultan or other Mamluk aristocrats. Sultan Qaytbay built many urbu (multi-storey apartments) and used the revenues to fund a charitable foundation for the inhabitants of Medina. ^[18] However, despite the continued financing of elaborate construction projects, increasingly the government could not afford the upkeep of essential infrastructure such as canals, dams and irrigation systems. ^[5]
These public works were matched by lavish private buildings for the sultan and his retainers. Sultan Ghuri notably built an ornate palace and garden, with soil and trees imported from Syria and an aqueduct to water it. ^[19] Mamluks treated themselves and foreign dignitaries to entertainment in hippodromes and to polo tournaments on the maydan (public square). ^[6] In the royal pavilion (maqad), ’incense burned and wine flowed, while musicians played and poets recited to a court society clad in silk and sprinkled with rosewater, the beards of its male luminaries perfumed with the musk of civet’. ^[20]

[1]: (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[2]: (Raymond 2000, 165) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[3]: (Winter 1992, xiii) Michael Winter. 1992. Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517‒1798. London: Routledge.

[4]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[5]: (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. ’Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts’, in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[6]: (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[7]: (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[8]: (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[9]: (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[10]: (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[11]: (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. ’Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period’, in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill.

[12]: (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[13]: (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[14]: (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane.

[15]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[16]: (Raymond 2000, 173-74) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[17]: (Raymond 2000, 154) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[18]: (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[19]: (Raymond 2000, 180) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[20]: (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21, 24) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

6 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

2 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Religion

1 Alternate Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

1 Occupational Complexity

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

2 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

2 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

10 Power Transition

Instability Events

23 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3) was in:
(1412 CE 1516 CE)	Upper Egypt

Home NGA: Upper Egypt

General Variables

Identity and Location Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	36 R	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Original Name	Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Capital	Cairo	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	Circassian Mamluks	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	Burji Mamluks	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	Mamluk Sultanate	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	Bahri Dynasty	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	State of Turkey	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternative Name	Dawla al Turkiyya	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Temporal Bounds Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	1495 CE
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Peak Years	1425 CE
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Duration	[1412 CE ➜ 1517 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	none	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Islam	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Ottoman Empire II	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	11,000,000 km²	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Preceding Entity 1348 CE 1412 CE	Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II (eg_mamluk_sultanate_2) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Language Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Afro-Asiatic	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Language	Arabic	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Religion Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Islam	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Religion Family	Sunni	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Religion	Hanafi	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternate Religion Genus	Islam	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternate Religion Family	Sufi	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Alternate Religion	Shadhil	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[150,000 to 400,000] people	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Polity Territory	2,100,000 km²	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Polity Population	3,200,000 people	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[6 to 7]	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Religious Level	[3 to 4]	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Military Level	7	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Administrative Level	7	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Professions Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Occupational Complexity	Uncoded Undecided	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Merit Promotion	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Law Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Judge	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Court	Absent	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Irrigation System	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present Disputed	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Absent Disputed	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Port	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Canal	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Bridge	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Information / Writing System Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Script	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Philosophy	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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History	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Fiction	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Calendar	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Information / Money Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Unknown Suspected	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Precious Metal	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Article	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Information / Postal System Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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General Postal Service	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Courier	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Information / Measurement System Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moat	Unknown	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Ditch	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Military use of Metals Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Iron	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Copper	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Bronze	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Projectiles Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Sling	Absent Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Self Bow	Unknown Suspected	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Javelin	Absent Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Crossbow	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Handheld weapons Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Sword	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Spear	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Dagger	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Animals used in warfare Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Elephant	Absent Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Donkey	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Camel	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Armor Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Shield	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Scaled Armor	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Plate Armor	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Limb Protection	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Laminar Armor	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Helmet	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Chainmail	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Breastplate	Absent Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Naval technology Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present Inferred	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	1412 CE 1517 CE
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Human Sacrifice Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III (eg_mamluk_sultanate_3)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More