Soviet Union

On 12 March 1918, the capital was transferred back to Moscow, following a Soviet government resolution. And in 1922, while remaining the capital of the Russian Republic, Moscow also became the capital of the Soviet Union. During this period, the city underwent intensive urban development. With an increase in population came the development of public transport. Regular bus routes appeared in Moscow in 1924, and the first trolleybuses came along in 1933. In May 1935, the metro was launched. ^[1] census data ^[2]

[1]: “City / Moscow City Web Site,” accessed November 23, 2023, https://www.mos.ru/en/city/about/.) Zotero link: BTZDI24F

[2]: (Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Всесоюзная Перепись Населения ) Zotero link: MZMZFQN2

The U.S.S.R. was the successor to the Russian Empire of the tsars. Following the 1917 Revolution, four socialist republics were established on the territory of the former empire: the Russian and Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republics and the Ukrainian and Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republics. On December 30, 1922, these constituent republics established the U.S.S.R. Additional union republics (Soviet Socialist Republics) were set up in subsequent years: the Turkmen and Uzbek S.S.R.’s in 1924, the Tadzhik S.S.R. in 1929, and the Kazakh and Kirgiz S.S.R.’s in 1936. In that year the Transcaucasian Republic was abolished and its territory was divided between three new republics: the Armenian, Azerbaijan, and Georgian S.S.R.’s. In 1940 the Karelo-Finnish, Moldavian, Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian S.S.R.’s were established. The Karelo-Finnish S.S.R. became an autonomous republic in 1956, leaving a total of 15 union republics (soyuznye respubliki).


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[1]: John C. Dewdney et al., “Soviet Union,” Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified 2023, accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union. Zotero link: TWGEBIMJ

The U.S.S.R. was the successor to the Russian Empire of the tsars. Following the 1917 Revolution, four socialist republics were established on the territory of the former empire: the Russian and Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republics and the Ukrainian and Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republics. On December 30, 1922, these constituent republics established the U.S.S.R. Additional union republics (Soviet Socialist Republics) were set up in subsequent years: the Turkmen and Uzbek S.S.R.’s in 1924, the Tadzhik S.S.R. in 1929.


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[1]: John C. Dewdney et al., “Soviet Union,” Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified 2023, accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union. Zotero link: TWGEBIMJ

The 1926 Soviet Union census, a comprehensive demographic survey, provided crucial insights into the population size and composition of the newly formed Soviet state. It captured detailed data on various aspects including age, gender, ethnicity, occupation, and literacy rates, painting a multifaceted picture of the society at that time. This data was pivotal in shaping subsequent economic and social policies within the Soviet Union. ^[1]

In twelve years the urban population more than doubled, reaching 56.1 million (33 percent of the total population) by 1939, a rate of urbanization historically without precedent. In terms of the economic structure of the working class, the share of workers and employees (along with their family members) reached half of the total population by 1939, up from roughly one-sixth in 1926. The virtually complete collectivization of farming was also indicated by census figures.

While the 1939 Soviet census has not been widely utilized, it nevertheless provided a framework of organizational experience and added to a popular understanding of statistical methods. These developments helped especially in conducting the numerous emergency survey counts that were necessary during World War II.

Twenty years passed before another comprehensive census took place on Soviet soil, on January 15, 1959. The date chosen at least allowed for comparisons by twenty-year intervals, and the published tables often included previously unreleased 1939 totals as well. However, the large territorial gains following World War II and the devastating effect that war losses had on the age and sex structure of the population made comparisons between census years quite difficult. Furthermore, unlike the Soviet censuses of 1920 and 1926, the 1959 questionnaire did not request information on place of birth, making difficult even a crude estimate of migration. The organization and administration of the population count in 1959 marked a standardization in Soviet census-taking procedures; most of the methods instituted in 1959 remained virtually unchanged for the succeeding Soviet censuses of 1970 and 1979. ^[2]

The 1989 Soviet census was the last one that took place in the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Soviet Union ranked as the third most populous in the world, above the United States. ^[3]

[1]: Всесоюзная перепись населения 17 декабря 1926 г (Издание ЦСУ Союза ССР, 1928). Zotero link: T9JQGM8H

[2]: Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Cornell University Press, 1986), accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1g69xfv. Zotero link: EPDK4KRV

[3]: “Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник Статистических Показателей.,” accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/pril.php. Zotero link: MZMZFQN2

The largest communication distance between Moscow and Vladivostok, its furthest provincial capital, is approximately 9,100 kilometers. ^[1]

[1]: “Расстояние между Москвой и Владивостоком,” accessed December 26, 2023 Zotero link: MHKMDHEM

1. Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (Генералиссимус Советского Союза)
2. Marshal of the Soviet Union (Маршал Советского Союза) / Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union (Адмирал Флота Советского Союза)
3. Chief Marshal of the Branch (Главный маршал рода войск)
4. Marshal of the Branch (Маршал рода войск)
5. General of the Army (Генерал армии) / Admiral (Адмирал)
6. Colonel General (Генерал-полковник)
7. Lieutenant General (Генерал-лейтенант) / Vice-Admiral (Вице-адмирал)
8. Major General (Генерал-майор) / Rear Admiral (Контр-адмирал)
9. Colonel (Полковник) / Captain 1st Rank (Капитан 1 ранга)
10. Lieutenant Colonel (Подполковник) / Captain 2nd Rank (Капитан 2 ранга)
11. Major (Майор) / Captain 3rd Rank (Капитан 3 ранга)
12. Captain (Капитан) / Captain-Lieutenant (Капитан-лейтенант)
13. Senior Lieutenant (Старший лейтенант)
14. Lieutenant (Лейтенант)
15. Junior Lieutenant (Младший лейтенант)
16. Warrant Officer (Прапорщик) / Midshipman (Мичман)
17. Master Sergeant (Старшина) / Senior Chief Petty Officer (Главный корабельный старшина)
18. Senior Sergeant (Старший сержант) / Chief Petty Officer (Главный старшина)
19. Sergeant (Сержант) / Petty Officer First Class (Старшина 1 статьи)
20. Junior Sergeant (Младший сержант) / Petty Officer Second Class (Старшина 2 статьи)
21. Corporal (Ефрейтор) / Senior Sailor (Старший матрос)
22. Private (Рядовой) / Sailor (Матрос)
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[1]: John Erickson, ed., The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918-1941, 0 ed. (Routledge, 2013) Zotero link: E6QJB2QF

The Bolsheviks’ new army, which they called the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (Raboche Krest’ianskaia Krasnaia Armiia, RKKA) did, surprisingly enough, start out nearly as Lenin had envisioned. Based on Red Guard detachments the Bolsheviks’ first military force was completely voluntary, drawn from the working class, and determined to defend the revolution. It soon became apparent to even the most idealistic of revolutionaries, however, that groupings of Red Guards did not constitute an army. The civilian leadership also quickly realized that the tasks at hand, such as preserving an empire threatened by independence movements and defending their fledgling Bolshevik government from a counterrevolutionary civil war and foreign intervention, required a real army and all it entailed. In March 1918 Lenin assigned Leon Trotsky the task of creating a true army.

Trotsky wisely dropped most of his Marxist utopian preconceptions of what an army ought to look like and immediately began forming an army along traditional lines. This included creation of a hierarchy of officers and enlisted men and provisions for military discipline and organization.


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[1]: Roger Reese, The Soviet Military Experience: A History of the Soviet Army, 1917-1991 (Routledge, 1999). Zotero link: G9K39WS5

The Red Army was recruited exclusively from among workers and peasants and immediately faced the problem of creating a competent and reliable officers’ corps. Trotsky met this problem by mobilizing former officers of the imperial army. Up to 1921 about 50,000 such officers served in the Red Army and with but few exceptions remained loyal to the Soviet regime. Political advisers called commissars were attached to all army units to watch over the reliability of officers and to carry out political propaganda among the troops. As the Russian Civil War continued, the short-term officers’ training schools began to turn out young officers who were regarded as more reliable politically.
The number of Communist Party members increased among the Red Army’s ranks from 19 to 49 percent during 1925–33, and among officers this increase was much higher. Moreover, all commanders were graduates of Soviet military academies and officers’ training schools, admission to which was limited to those recommended by the Communist Party.

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[1]: “Red Army,” Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified 2023, accessed November 22, 2023. Zotero link: FZC67C4G

The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs was founded on 8 September 1802 by the Manifest of Tsar Alexander I.

In June 1918, the Regulation on the work of the RSFSR’s PCFA was approved, which determined the structural composition of the agency and the order of organisation of representative offices abroad. The generalised experience of the work of the Commissariat became the basis for the Regulation on the RSFSR’s PCFA, which was adopted in June 1921. Due to the establishment of the Soviet Union the RSFSR’s PCFA was reorganised into the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR. In 1923, a new "Regulation on the USSR’s PCFA" was adopted. The Collegium as a governing body of the people’s commissariat was restored.

From January 1990 to the August Coup of 1991 of the so-called State Committee on the State of Emergency, the MFA was headed by Alexander Alexandrovich Bessmertnykh, who was then replaced by Boris Dimitrievich Pankin. At the beginning of November 1991 the state government made a decision on a "radical reorganisation" of the MFA and its transformation into the Ministry of Foreign Relations (MFR) with a simultaneous transfer to it of the functions of the Ministry of Foreign Economic Ties. Eduard Shevardnadze, who had returned to diplomatic work for a short time, became the head of this "experimental" structure until its abrogation in December 1991.
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[1]: https://mid.ru/en/about/social_organizations/

The Revolution of 1917 swept away the tsarist civil service. The Communist Party at first held that a strong administrative organization was bound to damage the revolution by dampening spontaneity and other revolutionary virtues. But it soon became clear that a regime dedicated to social engineering, economic planning, and world revolution needed trained administrators. The party fell back, albeit reluctantly, upon the expertise of the more reliable tsarist civil servants. It did, however, surround the new civil service with elaborate controls in an attempt to ensure that its members remained loyal to party directives.

As the Communist Party itself became bureaucratized and as the more enthusiastic revolutionary leaders were eliminated, special industrial academies were set up for party members who had shown administrative talent. With the First Five-Year Plan (1928–32) the status of civil servants was improved, and their conditions of service were made less rigid, even though the party never relaxed its tight system of control over all branches of the state apparatus. In 1935 the State Commission on the Civil Service was created and attached to the Commissariat of Finance with responsibility for ensuring general control of personnel practice. This commission laid down formal patterns of administrative structure, reformed existing bureaucratic practices, fixed levels of staffing, standardized systems of job classification, and eliminated unnecessary functions and staff. The inspectorate of the Ministry of Finance ensured that the commission’s general policies were carried out in the ministries. The commission itself remained under the close supervision of the Council of People’s Commissars to ensure that it complied with party directives, and the commission’s members were appointed directly by the council.
^[1]

[1]: (Public Administration - Soviet Union, Bureaucracy, Planning | Britannica) Zotero link: FARM9XPB

As the Communist Party itself became bureaucratized and as the more enthusiastic revolutionary leaders were eliminated, special industrial academies were set up for party members who had shown administrative talent. With the First Five-Year Plan (1928–32) the status of civil servants was improved, and their conditions of service were made less rigid, even though the party never relaxed its tight system of control over all branches of the state apparatus. In 1935 the State Commission on the Civil Service was created and attached to the Commissariat of Finance with responsibility for ensuring general control of personnel practice. This commission laid down formal patterns of administrative structure, reformed existing bureaucratic practices, fixed levels of staffing, standardized systems of job classification, and eliminated unnecessary functions and staff. The inspectorate of the Ministry of Finance ensured that the commission’s general policies were carried out in the ministries. The commission itself remained under the close supervision of the Council of People’s Commissars to ensure that it complied with party directives, and the commission’s members were appointed directly by the council.
^[1]

[1]: (Public Administration - Soviet Union, Bureaucracy, Planning | Britannica) Zotero link: FARM9XPB

Soviet law, law developed in Russia after the communist seizure of power in 1917 and imposed throughout the Soviet Union in the 1920s. After World War II, the Soviet legal model also was imposed on Soviet-dominated regimes in eastern and central Europe. Later, ruling communist parties in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam adopted variations of Soviet law. Soviet law, which changed radically during its more than 70 years of development in the Soviet Union, revived certain features of earlier tsarist law, shared key elements with the law of other dictatorships, and introduced public ownership of the means of production and subordination of the legal system to the Soviet Communist Party.

^[1]

[1]: Soviet Law | History & Facts | Britannica. Zotero link: 8E4CWR5V

On January 4th, 1923, the Presidium of the Government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) adopted a resolution on the Provisional Composition of the RSFSR Supreme Court. It was made public on January 10th, 1923, in Order No. 1 of the Supreme Court.

The RSFSR Supreme Court performed judicial supervision over all courts of other Republics. ^[1]

[1]: “Information about the Supreme Court.” Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, https://vsrf.ru/en/about/info/. Accessed 23 Nov. 2023. Zotero link: ECHKATUG

The Passage, established in the 1840s, is one of the oldest and most famous department stores in Russia, located on Nevsky Prospect, Saint Petersburg’s main avenue.

After the 1917 Revolution, like many private businesses, the Passage was nationalized by the Soviet government. It continued to operate as a state-owned department store throughout the Soviet period, making it a consistent and prominent example of a market under state ownership. ^[1]

[1]: Zelenskiĭ, V. A. Passazh Sankt Peterburg, 1848-1998 = Passage St. Peterburg 1848-1998. Artdeko, 1998. Zotero link: 9IRLS5PW

Irrigation canals played an essential role in the Soviet conquest of Central Asia in the 20th century. From the time of Lenin onwards, Soviet authorities invested significant human and material capital to dig new irrigation channels in Central Asia’s arid deserts. ^[1]

[1]: Brite, Elizabeth Baker. “The Hydrosocial Empire: The Karakum River and the Soviet Conquest of Central Asia in the 20th Century.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 52 (December 1, 2018) Zotero link: 2WD5HEB4

Many Russian Orthodox monasteries, which date back to well before the establishment of the Russian Empire in the 18th century, operated their own granaries. These granaries were essential for storing surplus grain and other foodstuffs, not only for the monks’ use but also for the surrounding communities, especially during times of famine or hardship. ^[1]

[1]: Seppel, Marten. “Communal Granaries in the Russian Empire: Conception, Implementation, and Failures in the Baltic Provinces.” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 67, no. 2 (2019) Zotero link: XGXRT789

The Moscow water supply system is the oldest engineering structure in the city. It was officially opened in 1804. The aqueduct in Rostokino, that supplied water to Moscow from Mytishchi, reminds one of that time.

The capital water supply history began in the 19th century with construction of the first water pipeline, a little more than 20 kilometers long. Today, the length of Moscow’s water supply networks exceeds 13 thousand kilometers, the city consumes about three million cubic meters of water daily, and Mosvodokanal, the largest water company in the country, is engaged in its preparation. ^[1]

[1]: “About Quality and Quantity: Seven Questions about Water Supply of Moscow / News / Moscow City Web Site,” Moscow City Web Site, accessed November 23, 2023, https://www.mos.ru/en/news/item/98140073/. Zotero link: WR2R5N6P

The Soviet Houses of Culture were popular institutions in the Soviet Union, created as public spaces to engage workers in various life-building programs. Their genealogy can be traced back to nineteenth-century Italy, when similar spaces formed out of workers’ desire for literacy. ^[1]


The Zuev Workers’ Club in Moscow, designed by architect Konstantin Melnikov and completed in 1929. The Zuev Workers’ Club was a significant cultural and community center, featuring a theater, library, lecture halls, and various clubs and workshops for workers. ^[2]

[1]: (Soviet Houses of Culture) Zotero link: I9XGKHHB

[2]: (Дом культуры имени Зуева официальный сайт) Zotero link: JE5F5V6H

During the time of the Soviet Union, many symbolic buildings and monuments were constructed.

Including:

The largest statue in the world of a historical figure of Vladimir Lenin in Volgograd.

The world’s tallest statue, “The Motherland Calls,” in 1967 in Volgograd ^[1]

Field of Mars in Petrograd ^[2]

[1]: Keegan, Katrina. “13 Massive Russian Monuments You Need to See.” Russian Life, https://russianlife.com/the-russia-file/13-massive-russian-monuments-you-need-to-see/. Accessed 23 Nov. 2023. Zotero link: 2K7R4RN7

[2]: “Hatherley, Owen.The USSR in 10 Buildings: Constructivist Communes to Stalinist Skyscrapers.” The Guardian, 21 Oct. 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/oct/21/ussr-10-buildings-stalin-skyscrapers-constructivist-architecture.. Zotero link: P36HJ96X

The State Public Historical Libary is a state repository of literature on history, historical disciplines and related disciplines. It is also a large methodological center for the work with historical subject area materials. The library’s collections, which number about 4 million units in 47 languages of the ex-USSR peoples and in 65 foreign languages. ^[1]


The Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory officially named the Central Astronomical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences at Pulkovo is the principal astronomical observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The observatory was opened in 1839. ^[2]

[1]: “История Библиотеки,” accessed November 23, 2023, https://www.shpl.ru/about_library/history_library/. Zotero link: 7UWNUP8F

[2]: “История Пулковской Обсерватории — ГАО РАН,” n.d., accessed November 23, 2023, http://www.gaoran.ru/?page_id=121. Zotero link: 2DWA4IKV

Several notable examples of entertainment buildings spanned the duration of the Soviet era:


Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow: One of the most famous historical theatres in Russia, it was a premier venue for opera and ballet. The Bolshoi Theatre, especially after its renovation post-World War II, remained a cultural landmark throughout the Soviet period. ^[1]


Mosfilm Studios, Moscow: Established in the 1920s, Mosfilm was the largest and most prominent film studio in the Soviet Union. It produced many significant Soviet films and served as a hub of the Soviet film industry. ^[2]

Lenfilm Studio, Saint Petersburg: Founded in 1918, Lenfilm was another major Soviet film studio, contributing significantly to the development of Soviet cinema. ^[3]

[1]: Bolshoi Theatre • History. https://bolshoi.ru/en/about/history. Accessed 23 Nov. 2023 Zotero link: MZJQBCMK

[2]: “Mosfilm History,” accessed November 23, 2023, https://en.mosfilm.ru/concern/hystory/ Zotero link: 9VR7EUE9

[3]: “История,” accessed November 23, 2023, https://www.lenfilm.ru/studio/history/ Zotero link: 3XXVW89U

The Soviet Union invested heavily in its road infrastructure, especially during the post-World War II era, to facilitate industrial growth, military movement, and improve connectivity across its vast territory.
The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to massive and rapid infrastructure development. ^{[1] [2]}


Examples: R504 Kolyma Highway, M4 highway, Trans-Siberian Highway

[1]: R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and S. G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Zotero link: SQIKYBTN

[2]: Шафиркин, Б. И. Единая Транспортная Система СССР и Взаимодействие Различных Видов Транспорта. Москва Высшая школа, 1983. Zotero link: 6MTCGJDC

The Soviet Union had a total of 70 ports, of which 26 were major ports, and eleven were inland ports.

Examples: Port of Novorossiysk, Port of Saint Petersburg, Port of Vostochny ^[1]

[1]: Saurabh Sinha, “7 Major Ports in Russia,” Marine Insight, last modified August 25, 2021, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/7-major-ports-in-russia/. Zotero link: 5AVNP8XA

No other country in the world has under­taken such an extensive program of con­struction of new canals and restoration of old ones, as has the Soviet Union. The Soviet waterways and the newly constructed and reconstructed canals, in particular, play both an economic and a strategic role. They not only provide additional navigable waterways and thus enlarge the transportation network, but they also now connect five seas—the Baltic, the White, the Black, the Sea of Azov, and the Caspian—on the European periphery of the Soviet Union. Thus, there exists an efficient inner waterway system, which per­mits the rapid transit of small naval vessels from one sea to another, since all the new and reconstructed navigable canals have a uniform depth of 3.65 meters (slightly over 12 feet). This allows 5,000-ton vessels to cruise freely and crisscross the entire Euro­pean part of the country, and to sail at will to any of the five seas surrounding the area. ^[1]

[1]: Victor P. Petrov, “Soviet Canals,” United States Naval Institute Proceedings (1967), https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1967/july/soviet-canals. Zotero link: RKX3AN4I

The Soviet Union invested heavily in its road infrastructure, especially during the post-World War II era, to facilitate industrial growth, military movement, and improve connectivity across its vast territory.
The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to massive and rapid infrastructure development.
^{[1] [2]}


Examples: Merefa-Kherson bridge, Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, Saratov Bridge

[1]: R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and S. G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Zotero link: SQIKYBTN

[2]: Шафиркин, Б. И. Единая Транспортная Система СССР и Взаимодействие Различных Видов Транспорта. Москва Высшая школа, 1983. Zotero link: 6MTCGJDC

Donetsk, in 1872 an ironworks was founded there by a Welshman, John Hughes (from whom the town’s pre-Revolutionary name Yuzivka was derived), to produce iron rails for the growing Russian rail network. Later steel rails were made. The plant used coal from the immediate vicinity, and both coal mining and steel making developed rapidly. By 1914 there were four metallurgical plants, 10 coal pits, and a population of about 50,000. Under the Soviet Union, Yuzivka was renamed Stalino and, in 1961, Donetsk. Heavy destruction in World War II led to postwar modernization and an increase in industry, which resulted in substantial and sustained economic growth. ^[1]

[1]: “Donetsk | Facts, Region, & Occupation | Britannica.” Last modified October 29, 2023. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/place/Donetsk-Ukraine.. Zotero link: RNGEFS2D

Lenin Mausoleum, monumental tomb in Moscow holding the embalmed body of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. It was designed by Alexei Shchusev and completed in 1930.
The Lenin Mausoleum occupies an ambiguous position among great architectural structures. To some, the highly polished, ziggurat-like mausoleum is an eternal reminder of a past better forgotten; to others, it is an immortal monument to a cherished history and triumphant leader. Shchusev (1873–1949) was commissioned to design and build the mausoleum in a short space of time, and initially he erected a temporary wooden structure near the Kremlin wall in Moscow’s Red Square, where the stone tomb is now located. ^[1]

[1]: Lenin Mausoleum | History, Description, & Facts | Britannica,” last modified October 13, 2023, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Lenin-Mausoleum. Zotero link: 6PETPZ7Z

The Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Moscow. Established in 1917, it served as the former national cemetery of the Soviet Union. The site began as an improvised burial place for 240 pro-Bolsheviks who died during the Moscow Bolshevik Uprising in November 1917 and evolved into a significant location for military and civilian honor, especially during the Second World War. The necropolis is centered around Lenin’s Mausoleum and includes the tombs of prominent Soviet leaders such as Stalin, Kalinin, Dzerzhinsky, and Brezhnev. ^[1]

[1]: “Могилы легендарных людей у Кремлевской стены | agava.by.” Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.agava.by/poleznaya-informaciya/mogily-legendarnykh-lyudey-u-kremlevskoy-steny. Zotero link: R87AGTQ9

Cyrillic alphabet, writing system developed in the 9th–10th century CE for Slavic-speaking peoples of the Eastern Orthodox faith. It is currently used exclusively or as one of several alphabets for more than 50 languages, notably Belarusian, Bulgarian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Macedonian, Montenegrin (spoken in Montenegro; also called Serbian), Russian, Serbian, Tajik (a dialect of Persian), Turkmen, Ukrainian, and Uzbek.

The Cyrillic alphabet was an indirect result of the missionary work of the 9th-century “Apostles of the Slavs,” St. Cyril (or Constantine) and St. Methodius. Their mission to Moravia lasted only a few decades. Their disciples went to South Slavic regions of the first Bulgarian empire, including what are now Bulgaria and the Republic of North Macedonia, where in the 900s they constructed a new script for Slavic, based on capital Greek letters, with some additions; confusingly, this later script (drawing on the name of Cyril) became known as Cyrillic. Saints Naum and Clement, both of Ohrid and both among the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, are sometimes credited with having devised the Cyrillic alphabet. ^[1]

[1]: “Cyrillic Alphabet | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica,” last modified October 11, 2023, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cyrillic-alphabet. Zotero link: 5PGC4769

Propaganda poster were designed to convey messages about the Communist Party’s goals, achievements, and directives. They often featured symbolic imagery, bold colors, and motivational slogans. The imagery in these posters was carefully crafted to inspire, educate, or mobilize the population around various themes such as industrial productivity, collective farming, political loyalty, and military strength. ^[1]

The Soviet Union also made extensive use of symbols and emblems to convey its ideals and values. The hammer and sickle, the red star, and the State Emblem of the Soviet Union are examples of such symbols. ^[2]

[1]: “Views and Re-Views: Soviet Political Posters and Cartoons | Medium: Posters,” accessed November 24, 2023, https://library.brown.edu/cds/Views_and_Reviews/medium_lists/posters.html. Zotero link: TDRA24PX

[2]: Harald Wydra, “The Power of Symbols—Communism and Beyond,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 25, no. 1/3 (2012): 49–69, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23279944. Zotero link: XI4RSUHR

The Soviet Union produced a significant amount of scientific literature across various disciplines.

Notable examples include:

Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz’s "Course of Theoretical Physics": A comprehensive ten-volume series that is highly regarded in the field of physics. ^[1]




Works by Andrei Kolmogorov: A prominent mathematician known for foundational work in probability theory, topology, and turbulence. ^[2]

[1]: “Landau and Lifshitz: Course of Theoretical Physics: Reviews.” Maths History. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Reviews_Landau_Lifshitz/. Zotero link: PB33G9FG

[2]: “Publications of A. N. Kolmogorov,” The Annals of Probability 17, no. 3 (July 1, 1989), accessed November 25, 2023, https://projecteuclid.org/journals/annals-of-probability/volume-17/issue-3/Publications-of-A-N-Kolmogorov/10.1214/aop/1176991252.full. Zotero link: DIVRAKQP

The Constitution of the USSR guarantees religious freedom, but the ruling Communist Party actively encourages the disappearance of religion. In the 1930s there was comprehensive religious persecution, but despite the virtual disappearance of the Russian Orthodox Church as an institution, the believing population did not give up its faith. During World War II, Stalin adopted a new policy. He granted the churches a limited institutional existence, and in return church leaders have been expected to speak favorably of Soviet political and social realities. Only a proportion of the clergy is, however, fully acceptable to the government, and a significant number tries to serve the religious needs of its flock the best it can. The ordinary believer is treated as a second-class citizen. Individuals who try to make the plight of Soviet Christians known in the world at large or to bear witness to their faith in public can expect reprisals from the authorities. ^[1]

[1]: Walters, Philip. “The Russian Orthodox Church and the Soviet State.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 483 (1986): 135–145. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1045546. Zotero link: WU2BZFEE

The Soviet Union produced a substantial amount of literature that was practical in nature. This included technical manuals, scientific works, educational textbooks, agricultural guides, political pamphlets, and a vast array of other publications that provided practical guidance on numerous topics. This literature served to educate the population, disseminate technical and scientific knowledge, guide industrial and agricultural practices, and promote political ideology. These documents were an essential part of the Soviet Union’s efforts to advance its economic, technological, and scientific goals.

Examples:

"Вопросы и Ответы по школьной физике" (Questions and Answers on School Physics) ^[1]



"Решение основных задач физики" (Problems in General Physics) by I.E. Irodov ^[2]



"Уличные бои" (Street Fighting) by Petrov (1942) ^[3]

[1]: Тарасов, Лев Васильевич. Готовимся к Экзамену По Физике, 1968. Zotero link: KZ6QCANA

[2]: Irodov, Igor’ E. Zadaci po obscej fizike. Izd. 2e, Pererab. Moskva: Izd. Nauka, 1988. Zotero link: MQNT9BF8

[3]: Н. Петров, Уличные бои, 1942. Zotero link: I5BFVJW6

Soviet philosophy was predominantly framed by Marxist-Leninist ideology, which influenced not only political thought but also the interpretation of a wide range of subjects from history to science.


Marxist-Leninist Ideology: The foundation of Soviet philosophical thought, focusing on dialectical and historical materialism.

Political Philosophy: Discussions on socialism, communism, the role of the state, and proletarian internationalism.

Ethics and Aesthetics: Views on moral principles and the role of art and literature in society, often linked to ideological and political goals.

Notable Philosophers and Works:

Vladimir Lenin: His works, such as "Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism" and "The State and Revolution," were fundamental to Soviet political philosophy. ^[1]



Joseph Stalin: "The Foundations of Leninism," ^[2]

[1]: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1963). Zotero link: RAQ899IP

[2]: Stalin, Joseph, and Vladimir Il?ich Lenin. The Foundations of Leninism. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform, 1924. Zotero link: 7SABA3V6

The Soviet Union was known for its meticulous and comprehensive record-keeping, which was a crucial aspect of its centralized planning and administration. This systematic approach to documentation covered various spheres of governance, economy, and society:

Economic Planning: Central to Soviet record-keeping was the detailed documentation associated with their Five-Year Plans.

Population Census: The Soviet government conducted regular censuses, gathering detailed information about the population.

Party Records: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union maintained extensive records of its members.

Military Documentation: The Soviet military kept thorough records on personnel, equipment, and operations.

Scientific and Academic Research: In the field of science and academia, research and studies were often accompanied by detailed records, including data tables and classifications, especially in natural and social sciences.

"The October Revolution of 1917 had as monumental an impact in the realm of archival administration as it did in most other aspects of society and culture, for it brought to Russia the most highly centralized archival system and the most highly state-directed principles of management, preservation, and utilization of documentary records that the world had seen." ^[1]

[1]: Patricia Kennedy Grimsted, “Archives in the Soviet Union: Their Organization and the Problem of Access,” The American Archivist 34, no. 1 (1971): 27–41, accessed November 24, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40291294. Zotero link: 4VUGMNII

Soviet historiography included a wide range of historical documentation such as books, articles, and theses that covered various aspects of world and Soviet history. ^[1]

[1]: “History Textbooks.” Presidential Library. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://www.prlib.ru/en/collections/467164. Zotero link: 28USQCGR

The Soviet Union produced a rich array of literature throughout its history.

Examples:

Mikhail Bulgakov’s "The Master and Margarita": A satire of Soviet life. ^[1]



Arkady and Boris Strugatsky’s "Roadside Picnic": A science fiction novel that inspired the film "Stalker" by Andrei Tarkovsky. ^[2]

[1]: Bulgakov, Mikhail, Richard Pevear, and Larissa Volokhonsky. The Master and Margarita. Penguin classics. London: Penguin Classics : [distributor] Penguin Books Ltd, 2007. Zotero link: UAPHZEUU

[2]: Arkadiĭ Natanovich Strugat︠s︡kiĭ, Boris Natanovich Strugat︠s︡kiĭ, and Olena Bormashenko, Roadside Picnic, [New] ed. /., SF masterworks (London: Gollancz, 2012). Zotero link: GQUEL8CF

In 1923, a radical change in the calendar took place. Soviet Russia abolished both the Julian calendar, used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the official Gregorian calendar that had been installed by Lenin. A new calendar was introduced, in which the weeks were changed and all religious feasts and holy days were replaced by five national public holidays associated with the Revolution. ^[1]

[1]: “Russian Calendar History.” Accessed November 24, 2023. https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/Russia.html. Zotero link: 6ISBAAIB

The origins of the Russian ruble as a designation of silver weight can be traced to the 13th century. In 1704 Tsar Peter I (the Great) introduced the first regular minting of the ruble in silver. During the 18th century it was debased, and, after the middle of the 19th century, the rapidly depreciating paper money predominated in Russia’s circulation. In 1897 a gold ruble was substituted for the silver one, marking the change to a gold standard. Early in World War I, gold coins disappeared from circulation, and notes became inconvertible. During the period of the Russian Revolution and civil war, an inflation of astronomical dimensions made the ruble virtually worthless. A reform carried out during 1922–23 reestablished an orderly monetary system. The chervonets was introduced as the standard unit and the basis of the state bank’s note issue; the chervonets ruble, corresponding to one-tenth of a chervonets, was made a unit of reckoning. The ruble remained a term of denomination for treasury notes and silver coins. In the post-World War II reform of 1947, the chervonets was abandoned as the monetary standard and the ruble restored. ^[1]

[1]: “Ruble | Russian Currency, Exchange Rate, History & Value Definition | Britannica Money.” Accessed November 26, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/money/ruble. Zotero link: 2HBX67H7

In 1860, the Emperor of Russia Alexander II signed a decree to establish the State Bank. This was the beginning of the history of the Bank of Russia. Initially, the State Bank was mainly engaged in short-term commercial lending. However, historical developments changed everything. In the 1920s, the bank was a key actor in the restoration of the country’s financial system and the development of exchange relationships

In the Soviet Union, the State Bank was a lender for the centrally planned economy, issued money and carried out international settlements.

1923 the State Bank of the RSFSR was reorganised into the State Bank of the USSR (Gosbank). ^[1]

[1]: “History the Bank of Russia.” Bank of Russia. https://www.cbr.ru/eng/about_br/history/. Zotero link: HQRB99QD

The state controlled and directed financial resources, including the allocation of credit. Internationally, the Soviet Union engaged in borrowing and lending activities aligned with its ideological and geopolitical objectives. The management of both domestic and international debt and credit was a key aspect of the Soviet Union’s economic strategy, reflecting its socialist economic model. ^[1]

[1]: Garvy, George. Money, Financial Flows, and Credit in the Soviet Union. Studies in international economic relations. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1977. Zotero link: RP6W84MG

Following the October Revolution of 1917, postal services in the Soviet Union underwent important development, particularly in the Central Asian republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, where the number of post offices eventually increased to 30 to 40 times that of the 1913 figure. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, state enterprises and individual customers alike were served by a network of some 90,000 post offices, about three-fourths of which were located in rural areas that prior to 1917 had little or no service. ^[1]

[1]: “Postal System - National Postal Systems | Britannica.” Accessed November 28, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/postal-system/National-postal-systems. Zotero link: D9ZJ8Q4U

The history of the State Courier Service of the Russian Federation (SFS Russia) dates back to December 17, 1796, when Emperor Paul I signed a Decree on the creation of a separate courier corps. The personnel of the Courier Corps (courier) ensured the delivery of the emperor’s decrees, orders, reports, securities, parcels, as well as the escort of high-ranking officials.

During the Soviet period, on the basis of the Courier Corps, the External Communications Service was formed under the Command Personnel Directorate of the All-Russian General Staff, then it was transformed several times and became subordinate to various departments (VChK - GPU - OGPU - NKVD, Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR, Ministry of Communications of the USSR). ^[1]

[1]: “ABOUT THE STATE FISCAL SERVICE OF RUSSIA,” https://gfs.gov.ru/informaciya/o-gfs-rossii/. Zotero link: 8WMJSDED

WHEN KARL MARX DIED in March 1883 there were already 1000 telephone subscribers in Russia. The telephone had come to Russia a mere six years after its invention, and only a year after the first urban telephone exchanges were opened on the European continent. On the eve of the Bolshevik seizure of power there was roughly one telephone for every 200 city-dwellers in Russia, compared to about one for every 50 Britons (and one for every 10 Americans). ^[1]

[1]: Solnick, Steven L. “Revolution, Reform and the Soviet Telephone System, 1917-1927.” Soviet Studies 43, no. 1 (1991): 157–175. Accessed November 28, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/152488. Zotero link: 7KFS88HE

Traditional Russian units of measurement were standardized and used in Tsarist Russia and after the Russian Revolution, but were abolished by order of the Council of People’s Commissars after July 21, 1925, when the Soviet Union adopted the metric system. ^[1]

[1]: Очерки Истории Русской Метрологии. XI - Начало XX Века - Шостьин Н.А., n.d., Zotero link: K39G27B6