Home Region: Andes (South America and Caribbean)

Inca Empire

1375 CE 1532 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 pe_inca_emp / PeInca*

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

1250 CE 1400 CE Cuzco - Late Intermediate II (pe_cuzco_6) [population replacement]

Succeeding Entity:

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General Description

The Inkas or Incas were just one of the multiple chiefdoms competing for power after the collapse of the Wari and Tiwanaku polities of the Middle Horizon. ^[1] And yet, they developed to become the largest indigenous empire in the Americas, known as Tawantinsuyu (’the four parts together’). ^[2] Growing from the Killke confederation, they started to expand in the Cuzco Valley and beyond over the late 14th and 15th centuries CE. ^[3] Over a short period from 1480 to 1532, three successive rulers ‒ Pachakuti, Thupa Inka Yupanqui and Huayna Capac ‒ pursued an expansionary policy which saw the empire stretch from southern Colombia to central Chile, covering most of the Andes. ^[4] Its geographical extent may have covered between 500,000 and 2 million square kilometres, ^[5] including dry coastal deserts, snow-capped mountains, and the fringes of the Amazon rainforest.
Because of their expansionary policy over huge swathes of land, the Inkas needed to establish adequate ruling strategies. They could exert indirect control through their hegemony over local allies. At Farfán in northern Peru, the blend of Chimú and Inka architectural styles may indicate that local elites were the vessel through which Inka rule was manifested. ^[6] Over the areas they conquered by force, the Inkas established new settlements and imposed their own regional administrators. Near Cañete, they massacred the local Guarco population and installed their own colonists at the site of Cerro Azul. ^[7] The dispersion and relocation of unruly people was one of their strategies to avoid uprisings, and could also serve to foster the empire’s productivity. Indeed, resettled populations could be clustered to create specialized centres of production, such as the weavers and potters of Milliraya, Bolivia. ^[8]
In addition to these violent methods, however, the Inka elite used ideological strategies to create a sense of community among conquered populations. Inka art employed a uniform geometric style, easily recognizable throughout the empire. Apart from the fine textiles and metals crafted for the royal lineages by chosen craftspeople, the rest of their ceramics and textiles were mass-produced and mass-distributed. ^[9] This meant that Inka identity could be easily replicated and grafted onto existing cultures. The Inka ’package’ included ceremonial vessels known as k’eros and aribalos, ^[10] used to distribute maize beer or chicha in state-sponsored feasts. The Inkas also reused previously important ceremonial shrines (wak’as) ‒ Muyu Orco, for example, was revered from the Late Formative period to the arrival of the Spanish. ^[11] ‒ and incorporated them into the network of shrines (z’eque) radiating outwards from Cuzco. ^[12] Every year, important state rituals manifested this state ideology on an impressive scale: the Inti Raymi or solstice festival was a grand state ceremony lasting for eight or nine days. ^[13] Cuzco acted as a great ceremonial centre with its sacred precincts; provincial administrators could be formally installed during the course of some of these rituals. ^[5]
The empire is also known for its elaborate infrastructure works. The royal highway, known as Qhapaq Ñan, was composed of two north/south axes linked by 20 east/west segments, and stretched over 40,000 kilometres. ^[14] Empire-sponsored storage facilities were located near every major town and village along the Inka roads. These units, known as tampus, were located no further than 15-25 kilometres apart, ^[15] a distance that corresponds to a day’s walk and facilitated the transport of armies and commodities throughout the empire. A highly efficient courier system was also in place, whereby messengers called chaski were stationed every 6-9 kilometres to relay messages, ^[16] allowing information and commands to travel 250 kilometres in a day. ^[17]
Population and political organization
The Inka empire was unprecedented in the Andean region in its ambition and scale. ^[18] Working backwards from colonial estimates, archaeologists and historians have estimated that its population in the early 16th century could have reached between 6 ^[19] and 14 million. ^[20] The capital, Cuzco, was a thriving city of 20,000 people ^[21] divided into two moieties, hanan and hurin, which represented both status divisions and geographical origin. ^[22]
At the top of the religious, military and administrative hierarchy was the the emperor, the Sapa Inka. Considered to be the Son of the Sun, he was believed to control supernatural powers. ^[23] After their deaths, Inka rulers were still venerated as mummies and their cults were managed by descendants from the same lineage. ^[24]
The Inkas used a 10-tiered administrative system, with 80 provinces administered by a governor in a local urban settlement. ^[25] They implemented a characteristic mode of production known as mit’a (’to take a turn’). ^[26] This built on Andean notions of reciprocal exchange to extract corvée service from heads of households for two or three months each year, ensuring that the state could rely on constant labour on a rotating basis.
The empire came to an abrupt end at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sapa Inka at this time, Huayna Khapaq, was stricken with disease ‒ possibly smallpox that had spread southwards from Central America, where it had been introduced by European invaders ‒ and died in 1528 CE. ^[27] His sons Waskhar and Atawallpa both claimed the throne, and the empire was soon weakened by civil war and disease. The Spanish. arrived in 1532 and conquered the Inka empire in a few years. It took several decades for them to assert their authority over the impressive geographical extent of the former Inka territory: by 1572, they had subdued the last bastion of Inka power at Vilcabamba. ^[28] However, indigenous resistance continued until Peru obtained its independence in 1821.

[1]: (D’Altroy 2002, 48) Terence D’Altroy. 2002. The Incas. Oxford: Blackwell.

[2]: (D’Altroy 2014, 2) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[3]: (Farrington 2013, 25) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

[4]: (D’Altroy 2014, 96) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[5]: Alan Covey 2017, personal communication

[6]: (D’Altroy 2014, 382) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[7]: (D’Altroy 2014, 100) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[8]: (D’Altroy 2014, 374) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[9]: (D’Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 267) Terence N. D’Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. ’Andean Empires’, in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell.

[10]: (D’Altroy 2014, 443) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[11]: (Bauer 2004, 44) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

[12]: (Bauer 1998, 3-5) Brian S. Bauer. 1998. The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

[13]: (D’Altroy 2014, 262-63) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[14]: (D’Altroy 2014, 5) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[15]: (Hyslop 1984, 303) John Hyslop. 1984. The Inka Road System. New York: Academic Press.

[16]: (D’Altroy 2014, 370) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[17]: (Marchetti and Ausubel 2012, 26) Cesare Marchetti and Jesse H. Ausubel. 2012. ’Quantitative Dynamics of Human Empires’. International Journal of Anthropology 27 (1-2): 1-62.

[18]: (Schreiber 1992, 282-83) Katherine J. Schreiber. 1992. ’Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru’. Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. 87.

[19]: (Cook 2004, 113) Noble David Cook. 2014. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[20]: (McEwan 2006, 96) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. The Incas: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

[21]: (Bauer 2004, 189, 227) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

[22]: (Farrington 2013, 221) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

[23]: Alan Covey 2015, personal communication.

[24]: (D’Altroy 2014, 176) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[25]: (D’Altroy 2014, 354-55) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[26]: (D’Altroy 2014, 395-96) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[27]: (D’Altroy 2014, 107) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

[28]: (D’Altroy 2014, 21) Terence N. D’Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

General Variables

Identity and Location

2 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

3 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

2 Suprapolity Relations

1 Succeeding Entity

3 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language Genus

1 Language

Religion

1 Religious Tradition

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

2 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

2 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

5 Power Transition

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp) was in:
(1400 CE 1531 CE)	Cuzco

Home NGA: Cuzco

General Variables

Identity and Location Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	19 L Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Utm Zone	18 L Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Original Name	Inca Empire Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Capital	Cuzco Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Alternative Name	Imperial Inca Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Alternative Name	Tawantinsuyu Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Alternative Name	Inka Empire Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Temporal Bounds Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	1525 CE Expert
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Duration	[1375 CE ➜ 1532 CE] Expert
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Political and Cultural Relations Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	alliance with [---] Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Suprapolity Relations	none Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Succeeding Entity	EsHabsb Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	cultural assimilation Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	population migration Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Preceding Entity 1250 CE 1400 CE	Cuzco - Late Intermediate II (pe_cuzco_6) [population replacement] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Language Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Quechuan Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Language Genus	uncoded Undecided Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Language	Quechua Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Religion Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religious Tradition	Inca Religion Expert	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[20,000 to 100,000] people	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Polity Territory	[500,000 to 2,000,000] km²	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Polity Population	[6,000,000 to 14,000,000] people	1532 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	5	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Religious Level	4	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Military Level	6	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Administrative Level	[4 to 6]	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Professions Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Merit Promotion	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Law Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Judge	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Court	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present Disputed	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Absent Inferred Disputed	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Port	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Canal	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Bridge	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Information / Writing System Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Script	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Mnemonic Device	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Sacred Text	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Religious Literature	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Practical Literature	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Philosophy	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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History	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Fiction	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Calendar	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Information / Money Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Precious Metal	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Foreign Coin	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Article	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Information / Postal System Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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General Postal Service	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Courier	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Information / Measurement System Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moat	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Ditch	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Complex Fortification	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Long Wall	absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Military use of Metals Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Iron	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Copper	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Bronze	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Projectiles Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Sling	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Self Bow	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Javelin	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Crossbow	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Composite Bow	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Atlatl	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Handheld weapons Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Sword	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Spear	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Dagger	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Animals used in warfare Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Elephant	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Donkey	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Camel	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Armor Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Shield	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Scaled Armor	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Limb Protection	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Laminar Armor	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Helmet	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Chainmail	Absent	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Breastplate	Present	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Naval technology Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent Inferred	1375 CE 1532 CE
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Human Sacrifice Inca Empire (pe_inca_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More