The Kalabhra Dynasty ruled from the 3rd century CE to the late 6th or early 7th centuries CE in the Tamil Nadu region of southern India. This period of Kalabhra rule is also known as the Kalabhra Interregnum and is considered the ‘Dark Age’ of Tamil history. [1] The Kalabhra Dynasty had its first capital in Kaveripumpattinam and its final capital in Madurai. [2] It is believed that the Kalabhra Dynasty promoted the Buddhist and Jain religions and may have been less favourable to the Brahmanical religion. [3] By the end of the 6th or early 7th centuries, the Kalabhra Dynasty was taken over by the kingdoms of Pandyas and Pallavas of south and north Tamil. [2]
[1]: (Ganesh 2013, 26) Ganesh, K.N. 2013. ‘Transition in Early Tamil Society: A Hypothesis on the Formation of Tamil Region’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 74. Pp 23-47. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EJ9WSE3H/collection
[2]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[3]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection
| 44 P |
| Kalabhra Dynasty |
| Kaveripumpattinam | |
| Madurai |
| Kalappirar | |
| Kalabhra Interregnum | |
| Kalabbha | |
| Kalabhran |
| Pandyas |
| UNCLEAR: [None] | |
| Succeeding: Late Pallava Empire (in_pallava_emp_2) [None] | |
| Succeeding: Pandya Dynasty (in_pandya_emp_2) [continuity] |
| inferred present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| Year Range | Kalabhra Dynasty (in_kalabhra_dyn) was in: |
|---|
“The great ruler Acutavikranta Kalabhra ruled from Kaveripumpattinam in Tanjore district at the mouth of the river probably in the fourth century A.D. The second capital of the Kalabhras was at Madura.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“The great ruler Acutavikranta Kalabhra ruled from Kaveripumpattinam in Tanjore district at the mouth of the river probably in the fourth century A.D. The second capital of the Kalabhras was at Madura.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“This period called ‘Kalabhra interregnum’ was presumably from 3rd to sixth centuries CE, when the Tamil country was believed to have been overrun by Northern invaders, called ‘Kalabhras’. [1] Within the following quote, there are two different end dates given. “The Kasakundi plates refer to Sinhavisnu’s conquest of the Kalabhras late in the 6th century A.D. The velvikuddi plates of Nedunjadayn show the defeat of the Kalabhras at the hands of Kadungon (c. A.D. 600).” [2]
[1]: (Ganesh 2013, 26) Ganesh, K.N. 2013. ‘Transition in Early Tamil Society: A Hypothesis on the Formation of Tamil Region’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 74. Pp 23-47. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EJ9WSE3H/collection
[2]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“After their defeat, the Kalabhras became feudatories under the Pandyas and the Pallavas and continued so till the tenth century A.D.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“The Kalabhras, or Kalappirar, were rulers of all or parts of the Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Cheras disintergrated.” [1]
[1]: (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection
“For about five centuries, the powers of the rulers from several dynasties of the south were curtailed by the rise of a tribe known as Kalabhras. Not much is known about the Kalabhra kings except that they were known as evil kings. Finally, together the Pallava King Simhavishnu and the Pandyan king defeated the Kalabhras.” [1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 564) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection
“After their defeat, the Kalabhras became feudatories under the Pandyas and the Pallavas and continued so till the tenth century A.D.” [1] “The first two rulers of the early medieval line were Kadungon (560-90) and his son Maravarman Avanishulamani (590-620). The latter is credited with ending Kalabhra rule in the area and reviving Pandya power.” [2]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (Singh 2008, 558) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection
“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [1] The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.” [2] “Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.” [3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
[3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection
“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [1] The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.” [2] “Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.” [3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
[3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection
“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [1] The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.” [2] “Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.” [3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
[3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection
“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [1] The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.” [2] “Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.” [3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
[3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection
“According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” [1] “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” [2] “Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, sitting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [3]
[1]: (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection
[2]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection
[3]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” [1] “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” [2] “Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, sitting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [3]
[1]: (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection
[2]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection
[3]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” [1] “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” [2] “Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, sitting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.” [3]
[1]: (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection
[2]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection
[3]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“The name commonly used by Theravadins and other Buddhists for their canon is tipitaka (Skt. tripitaka) ‘three baskets’. The origin of and the idea behind this designation are not known. It is however certain that this is not the oldest name used for a collection of Buddhist texts. In the canon itself the buddhavacana ‘Buddha word’ is usually divided into dhamma ‘teaching’ and vinaya ‘discipline’, to which matika ‘the Patimokkhasutta (§ 14)’ is added.” [1]
[1]: (von Hinüber 1996, 7) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
levels. Two levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources: Capital and villages. Due to the presence of capitals and villages within the Kalabhra Tamil region, it seems reasonable to infer the presence of towns and hamlets. :1. Capital :“The great ruler Acutavikranta Kalabhra ruled from Kaveripumpattinam in Tanjore district at the mouth of the river probably in the fourth century A.D. The second capital of the Kalabhras was at Madura.” [1] ::2. Towns (inferred) :::3. Villages :::“The Kalabhra chiefs are called evil kings and are charged with the resumption of brahmadeya lands enjoyed by the beneficiaries. The Pandya inscription of the eight and ninth centuries speak of the loss of such lands in the wake of the Kalabhra aggression and also of the encroachment of the sudras on a donated village.” [2] ::::4. Hamlets (inferred)
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
[2]: (Sharma 1988, 9) Sharma, R.S. 1988. ‘Problems of Peasant Protest in Early Medieval India’. Social Scientist. Vol. 16:9. Pp 3-16. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AV7FGCGM/collection
Dharmasutras. The following quote refers the Dharmasutras which deals with certain social and legal codes for the Brahmin community thus, it does not pertain to Buddhist or Jain religions. “The subject matter of the Dharmasutras, therefore, includes education of the young and their rites of passage; ritual procedures and religion ceremonies; marriage and marital rights and obligations; dietary restrictions and food transactions; the right profession for, and the proper interaction between, different social groups; sins and their expiations; institutions for the pursuit of holiness; king and the administration of justice; crimes and punishment; death and ancestral rights. In short, the unique documents give us a glimpse if not into how people actually lived their lives in ancient India, at least into how people, especially Brahmin males, were ideally expected to live their lives within an ordered and hierarchically arranged society.” [1]
[1]: (Olivelle 2000, 1) Olivelle, Patrick. 2000. Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasistha. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/RTJ2KC23/collection
The following quote discusses early Tamil inscriptions from Madurai and Sivaganga dated between the Second Century BC and the Sixth Century AD. The inscriptions mention various professions particularly merchants and traders suggesting that markets were likely present. “Although the earliest are mainly found in the Madurai and Sivaganga districts, these epigraphs are scattered all over Tamil Nadu. They sometimes simply record a name (tiyancantan in Alakarmalai cave in Madurai district), sometimes the name of a person along with his profession (goldsmith, salt merchant, accountant, nun, sugar merchant, trader in ploughshares, cloth merchant, for example, all in the cave of Alakarmalai).” [1]
[1]: (Gillet 2014, 284-285) Gillet, Valérie. 2014. ‘The Dark Period: Myth or Reality?’ Indian Economic and Social History Review. Vol. 51:3. Pp 283-302. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/NMH86RIS/collection
Temple. “The Muttaraiyar and the Kalabhras are equated each other by T.A. Gopinath Rao. The Vaikunt Perumal Temple inscription at Kanci speaks of a Muttaraiyar coming to receive Nandivarman Pallavarnalla II at the latter’s coronation. A mutilated inscription found in the Vaikuta Temple at Kaci styles Suvaran Maran as Kalavara-Kalavan. The word Kalavan (Tamil) perhaps became Kalabhra in Sanskrit.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
The following quote discusses early Tamil inscriptions from Madurai and Sivaganga dated between the Second Century BC and the Sixth Century AD. The inscriptions mention various professions particularly merchants and traders suggesting that markets were likely present. “Although the earliest are mainly found in the Madurai and Sivaganga districts, these epigraphs are scattered all over Tamil Nadu. They sometimes simply record a name (tiyancantan in Alakarmalai cave in Madurai district), sometimes the name of a person along with his profession (goldsmith, salt merchant, accountant, nun, sugar merchant, trader in ploughshares, cloth merchant, for example, all in the cave of Alakarmalai).” [1]
[1]: (Gillet 2014, 284-285) Gillet, Valérie. 2014. ‘The Dark Period: Myth or Reality?’ Indian Economic and Social History Review. Vol. 51:3. Pp 283-302. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/NMH86RIS/collection
The following quote suggests that there was a centre of knowledge in Tamil Nadu known as the Sangam which carried on into some of the Kalabhra period. “The expression of Sangam in Tamil literature stands for an academy of arts and letters started and patronised by all the three crowned kings of the Tamil lands, Pandya, Cola and Cera, and especially the Pandya […] The Academy was, then, in the nature of a modern University and the heart-centre of higher learning in all Tamil India. [1]
[1]: (Dikshitar 1941, 152-153) Dikshitar, Ranachandra. 1941. ‘The Sangam Age’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 5. Pp 152-161. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection
The following quote suggests that coastal trading centres or ports were likely present. “For instance, R. Nagaswamy reviews the dates of the Roman remains found in Alakankulam, and concludes, perhaps a little hastily, that ‘costal trade round Cape Caomorin was active not in the first century AD, but in the fourth-fifth centuries AD,’ V. Begley remarks that recent findings on the Arikamedu site are assigned to the period between the third to the seventh century AD, indicating that trading activity probably decreased after the first-second centuries AD, but did not cease entirely.” [1]
[1]: (Gillet 2014, 286) Gillet, Valérie. 2014. ‘The Dark Period: Myth or Reality?’ Indian Economic and Social History Review. Vol. 51:3. Pp 283-302. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/NMH86RIS/collection
“The Muttaraiyar and the Kalabhras have equated each other by T.A. Gopinath Rao. The Vaikunt Perumal Temple inscription at Kanci speaks of a Muttaraiyar coming to receive Nandivarman Pallavarnalla II at the latter’s coronation. A mutilated inscription found in the Vaikuta Temple at Kaci styles Suvaran Maran as Kalavara-Kalavan. The word Kalavan (Tamil) perhaps became Kalabhra in Sanskrit.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“The Kalabhras who ruled in the far South including Kerala and South Mysore, minted and circulated a large quantity of copper coins from about 250 A.D. to the middle of the sixth century A.D. On early issues of the tribe we have the figures of tiger, elephant, horse and the fish. In rare specimens a seated Jain Muni or a swastika sign or the short sword or the symbol of Manjusri are seen. The Prakrit inscription on the other side of the coin in Brahmi script reads invariably Acuvikanta Kalabhra.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
“Prakrit declensions differ from those of Sanskrit mainly through the working of the phonetic rules given above and some others affecting particular inflections […]” [1]
[1]: (Woolner 1986, 32) Woolner, Alfred C. 1986. Introduction to Prakrit. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/P5VJ9KME/collection
“The name commonly used by Theravadins and other Buddhists for their canon is tipitaka (Skt. tripitaka) ‘three baskets’. The origin of and the idea behind this designation are not known. It is however certain that this is not the oldest name used for a collection of Buddhist texts. In the canon itself the buddhavacana ‘Buddha word’ is usually divided into dhamma ‘teaching’ and vinaya ‘discipline’, to which matika ‘the Patimokkhasutta (§ 14)’ is added.” [1]
[1]: (von Hinüber 1996, 7) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.” [1]
[1]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]
[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library
“The Kalabhras who ruled in the far South including Kerala and South Mysore, minted and circulated a large quantity of copper coins from about 250 A.D. to the middle of the sixth century A.D. On early issues of the tribe we have the figures of tiger, elephant, horse and the fish. In rare specimens a seated Jain Muni or a swastika sign or the short sword or the symbol of Manjusri are seen. The Prakrit inscription on the other side of the coin in Brahmi script reads invariably Acuvikanta Kalabhra.” [1]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection
The quote below discusses general systems of measurement in ancient India suggesting that weight measurements were likely present under the Kalabhra. “The basic weight of ancient India was the raktika, the bright red seed of the gunja (abrus precatorius), which was conventionally reckoned at about 1.83 grains (.118 grams). Many sources give series of weights rising from this, which are not wholly consistent, and show that standards varied very widely with time and place. [1]
[1]: (Kumar 2003, 329) Kumar, Raj. 2003. Essays on Ancient India. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Limited. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BME9K992/collection
“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” [1]
[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library
The quote below discusses general systems of measurement in ancient India suggesting that length measurements were likely present under the Kalabhra. “Though most sources give the krosa (in modern Indian language kos) as 2,000 dandas the Arthasaastra gives it as only 1000; the yojana, which was the commonest measure of long distance in ancient India, would thus be only 4.5 miles (7.2 km.).” [1]
[1]: (Kumar 2003, 330) Kumar, Raj. 2003. Essays on Ancient India. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Limited. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BME9K992/collection