Home Region: Mongolia (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Xiongnu Imperial Confederation

209 BCE 60 BCE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 mn_hunnu_emp / MnXngnM

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

1400 BCE 300 BCE Early Xiongnu (mn_hunnu_early) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

60 BCE 100 CE Late Xiongnu (mn_hunnu_late) [continuity]

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General Description

The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 200 BCE and 100 CE, it was under the control of the Xiongnu Imperial Confederation.
This polity comprised several nomadic peoples from the Mongolian Steppe. By the 4th century BCE, the Xiongnu began raiding northern China, ^[1] where their mounted archery overwhelmed the heavily armed but relatively immobile Chinese infantry. ^[2] The nomads were held at bay by a combination of tribute in the form of metals, finished products, and agricultural products, and China’s numerical superiority. ^[3] ^[4] ^[5] Several Chinese victories against the Xiongnu in the 1st century BCE and factional conflict within the confederacy led to the confederacy’s breakup, and a new group of semi-nomadic peoples from the Northeast, the Xianbei, took control of the region. ^[1]
At their height, the Xiongnu ruled over an area that included all of Mongolia, extending to the Ordos region in the south, and the boreal forests of Siberia in the north, for a total of about 4,000,000 squared kilometres. ^[6]
Precise estimates could not be found for the empire’s population, but estimates suggest that nomads living to the north of China did not number more than 1,500,000, ^[7] and the best studied (but not the largest) settlement, Ivolga, likely had a population of between 2,500 and 3,000. ^[8] The empire was divided into three kingships: a central one, directly ruled by the paramount leader, and a "left" one and a "right" one, to the east and west, respectively, distributed among twenty-four regional leaders known as the "ten thousand horsemen". ^[9]

[1]: (Rogers 2012, 222)

[2]: (Marsh 2012, 500-501) Kevin Marsh. Xiongnu. Xiaobing Li ed. 2012. China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.

[3]: (Barfield 1993, 157)

[4]: (Ying-Shih 1986)

[5]: (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 133)

[6]: (Rogers 2012, 220-221)

[7]: (Kradin 2011, 77)

[8]: (Kradin 2011, 85)

[9]: (Rogers 2012, 220)

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

1 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

1 Mnemonic Device

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

2 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp) was in:
(209 BCE 60 BCE)	Orkhon Valley

Home NGA: Orkhon Valley

General Variables

Identity and Location Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	48 T	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Original Name	Xiongnu Imperial Confederation	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Capital	None (Absent Capital)	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Alternative Name	Hsiung-nu	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[209 BCE ➜ 60 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Succeeding Entity	MnXngnL	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Preceding Entity 1400 BCE 300 BCE	Early Xiongnu (mn_hunnu_early) [continuity]
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Succeeding Entity 60 BCE 100 CE	Late Xiongnu (mn_hunnu_late) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Language Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Turkic	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Language	Xiongnu	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Religion Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Xiongnu Religions	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[3,000 to 5,000] people	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Polity Territory	[4,000,000 to 4,200,000] km²	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Polity Population	1,500,000 people	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Hierarchical Complexity Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[2 to 3]	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Religious Level	1	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Military Level	6	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Administrative Level	[3 to 4]	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Professions Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Examination System	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Law Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Judge	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Court	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Irrigation System	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Port	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Canal	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Information / Writing System Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Script	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Nonwritten Record	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Non Phonetic Writing	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Mnemonic Device	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Sacred Text	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Religious Literature	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Practical Literature	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Philosophy	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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History	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Fiction	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Calendar	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Information / Money Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Precious Metal	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Paper Currency	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Article	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Information / Postal System Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Courier	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Ditch	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Long Wall	unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Military use of Metals Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Iron	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Copper	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Bronze	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Projectiles Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Self Bow	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Crossbow	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Handheld weapons Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Sword	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Spear	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Polearm	Present Inferred Disputed	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Polearm	Absent Disputed	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Dagger	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Battle Axe	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Elephant	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Donkey	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Camel	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Armor Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Shield	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Scaled Armor	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Plate Armor	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Limb Protection	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Helmet	Present	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Chainmail	Present Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Breastplate	Unknown Suspected	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Naval technology Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Absent	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent Inferred	209 BCE 60 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Xiongnu Imperial Confederation (mn_hunnu_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More