Home Region: Mainland Southeast Asia (Southeast Asia)

Funan I

225 CE 540 CE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 kh_funan_1 / KhFunaE

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

[continuity; Iron Age chiefdoms] [continuity] Update here

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

540 CE 640 CE Funan II (kh_funan_2) [continuity]

General Description

’Funan’ is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. ^[1] Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. ^[2] The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name ’culture of Oc Èo’ to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. ^[3]
Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. ^[4] We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. ^[5] Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. ^[6]
Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) ^[7] or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). ^[8]
Population and political organization
It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. ^[9] The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer poñ, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as ’kings’ by the Chinese. ^[10]
No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. ^[11]

[1]: (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File.

[2]: (O’Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O’Reilly. 2007. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Lanham: AltaMira Press.

[3]: (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. ’Introduction’, in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio.

[4]: (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. ’Le Fou-Nan’. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 3: 248-303.

[5]: (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin.

[6]: (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)

[7]: (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. ’Introduction’, in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio.

[8]: (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File.

[9]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. The Khmers. Oxford: Blackwell.

[10]: (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies.

[11]: (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

4 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

2 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

2 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

2 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

1 Communal Building

1 Entertainment Building

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Funan I (kh_funan_1) was in:
(225 CE 539 CE)	Cambodian Basin

Home NGA: Cambodian Basin

General Variables

Identity and Location Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	48 P	225 CE 540 CE
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Original Name	Funan I	225 CE 540 CE
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Capital	Vyadhapura/Angkor Borei	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternative Name	bnam	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternative Name	biennium	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternative Name	vnam	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternative Name	Culture of Oc Eo	225 CE 540 CE
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Temporal Bounds Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	[250 CE ➜ 514 CE]
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Duration	[225 CE ➜ 540 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	nominal allegiance to [---]	225 CE 540 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Chinese cultural sphere	225 CE 540 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Indian cultural sphere	225 CE 540 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Funan II	225 CE 540 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	225 CE 540 CE
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Preceding Entity	continuity; Iron Age chiefdoms [continuity] Update here
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Succeeding Entity 540 CE 640 CE	Funan II (kh_funan_2) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state	225 CE 540 CE
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Language Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Austro-Asiatic	225 CE 540 CE
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Linguistic Family	unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Language	Khmer	225 CE 540 CE
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Language	Mon	225 CE 540 CE
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Religion Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Hinduism	225 CE 540 CE
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Religion Family	Saivist	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternate Religion Genus	Buddhism	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternate Religion Family	Mahayana	225 CE 540 CE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	225 CE 540 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	2,000 people	225 CE 540 CE
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Polity Territory	257,034 km²	225 CE 540 CE
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Polity Population	- Undecided	225 CE 540 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	3	225 CE 540 CE
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Religious Level	2	225 CE 540 CE
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Military Level	2	225 CE 540 CE
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Administrative Level	3	225 CE 540 CE
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Professions Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present Uncertain	225 CE 540 CE
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Professional Soldier	Absent Uncertain	225 CE 540 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Merit Promotion	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Examination System	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Law Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Judge	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Court	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Food Storage Site	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Communal Building	Uncoded Undecided	225 CE 540 CE
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Entertainment Building	Uncoded Undecided	225 CE 540 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Port	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Canal	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Bridge	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Information / Writing System Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Script	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Philosophy	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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History	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Fiction	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Calendar	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Information / Money Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Article	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Information / Postal System Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Courier	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Information / Measurement System Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Moat	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Ditch	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Complex Fortification	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Long Wall	8 km	225 CE 540 CE
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Military use of Metals Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Iron	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Copper	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Bronze	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Projectiles Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Sling	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Self Bow	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Javelin	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Composite Bow	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Handheld weapons Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Sword	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Spear	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Polearm	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Dagger	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Battle Axe	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Animals used in warfare Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Elephant	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Camel	Absent	225 CE 540 CE
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Armor Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Shield	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Scaled Armor	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Limb Protection	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Leather Cloth	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Laminar Armor	Absent Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Helmet	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Chainmail	Unknown Suspected	225 CE 540 CE
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Breastplate	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Naval technology Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	225 CE 540 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present Inferred	225 CE 540 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Unknown	225 CE 540 CE
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Human Sacrifice Funan I (kh_funan_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More