Nayaks of Madurai

levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted literature. City and hamlets are inferred due to the presence of capital, town, and village.:1. Capital : “The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura, and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” ^[1] ::2. City (inferred) :::3. Town ::: “Further, Muttu Krishnappa’s resources were devoted to objects of popular approval, as the building of pagodas, grants of agraharas, and construction of tanks. He is also said to have built a town called Krishapuram between Madura and Skandamalai, and a Siva temple at Kayathur.” ^[2] ::::4. Village :::: “A copper plate inscription of 1560 records a grant of twelve villages in the Tinnevelly country by Visvanatha and Ariyanatha.” ^[3] :::::5. Hamlet (inferred)

[1]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

[2]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 92) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

[3]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 71) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources. It is likely that there were various tiers of officers giving orders to infantry therefore, officers are inferred. Possible that more levels were present. :1. Nayaks : “In return for this, they were to pay tribute to the Nayak of one-third of their income from land, and maintain, with another third part, the troops which their master would require in case of war.” ^[1] ::2. Polegar (military governor or administrator) :: “The status and power of the various polegars could not have been the same; it is extremely unlikely that all of the had equally good record of past service and equal possessions. In course of time at least, there would have been changes in their attitude and position. Consequently, their obligations would have been different. Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” ^[1] :::3 Officers (inferred) ::::4. Infantry :::: “Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” ^[1]

[1]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources. It is likely that the Nayak rulers had courts serving under them therefore, court is inferred. Possible that more levels were present.:1. Nayaka : “The Padu Mandapa or ‘New Hall’ (Tamil Putu Mantapam) is one of the best-known monuments from the Nayaka period of Tamilnadu in the later sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was built around 1630 under the patronage of Tirumala Nayak, the ruler of Maduari (1623-59), hence an alternative name, ‘Tirumala Nayak’s Choultry’”. ^[1] ::2. Court (inferred) :::3. Polegars (military governor or administrator) ::: “The status and power of the various polegars could not have been the same; it is extremely unlikely that all of the had equally good record of past service and equal possessions. In course of time at least, there would have been changes in their attitude and position. Consequently, their obligations would have been different. Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” ^[2] ::::4. Chiefs :::: “Visvanatha’s arrangement in this respect was a practical solution of the difficulties he was confronted with. He pacified his clamours adherents and old, discontented chiefs by conferring on them a dignified status and definite proprietary rights over portions of land. By making the cession hereditary their self-love was flattered and their sense of responsibility increased. They were given complete powers of police and judicial administration. For good or for evil, they were master in their small sphere. In return for this, they were to pay tribute to the Nayak of one-third of their income from land, and maintain, with another third part, the troops which their master would require in case of war.” ^[2]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 191) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

[2]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

The following quote suggests that a formal legal code was likely present. “Visvanatha’s arrangement in this respect was a practical solution of the difficulties he was confronted with. He pacified his clamours adherents and old, discontented chiefs by conferring on them a dignified status and definite proprietary rights over portions of land. By making the cession hereditary their self-love was flattered and their sense of responsibility increased. They were given complete powers of police and judicial administration.” ^[1]

[1]: (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection

The following quote discusses the Meenakshi Suderesvana temple complex in Madurai during the reign of the Nayaks. “As it grew, the temple became a series of enclosures that nestle a diverse array of functional and ceremonial spaces, such as pillared halls, open courts, inhabitable corridors, and shrines, all designed to accommodate the temple’s diverse civic and religious functions. In addition, it has markets, private shrines, places of resting, dwellings for priests and ceremonial sites.” ^[1]

[1]: (Ching et al. 2017, 595) Ching, Francis D.K. et. al., 2017. ‘Nayaks of Madurai’ In A Global History of Architecture. London: Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/TEDWQ8GJ/collection

The following quote suggests that irrigations systems might have been present during this period due to the presence of various water tanks around the temple complex of Pudu Mandapa. “Water may have been supplied by either the small octagonal tank that lies between the Pudu Mandapa and the Raya Gopura that is called the Vasanta Tank on Francis’ 1906 plan of the temple, or from the Elukakalkkulam (‘Seven Seas Tank’). This festival tank (teppakkulam) was built according to an inscription in c. 1516/7 as the gift of the Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya and was located about one hundred metres east of the Raya Gopura through it is now built over.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 198) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

The following quote suggests that drinking water supply systems were likely present during this period due to the presence of various water tanks around the temple complex of Pudu Mandapa. “Water may have been supplied by either the small octagonal tank that lies between the Pudu Mandapa and the Raya Gopura that is called the Vasanta Tank on Francis’ 1906 plan of the temple, or from the Elukakalkkulam (‘Seven Seas Tank’). This festival tank (teppakkulam) was built according to an inscription in c. 1516/7 as the gift of the Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya and was located about one hundred metres east of the Raya Gopura through it is now built over.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 198) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

Temples. “That the Madurai Nayak, chose the seated or standing Bull as their crest is proved by the flag staffs found in Madurai Minakshi temple and Subramanya temple at Thirupurankunram.” ^[1]

[1]: (Nagaswamy 1981, 169) Nagaswamy, Ramachandran. 1981. Tamil Coins: A Study. Chennai: Institute of Epigraphy Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M4E8JD39/collection

Markets. The following quote discusses the Meenakshi Suderesvana temple complex in Madurai during the reign of the Nayaks. “As it grew, the temple became a series of enclosures that nestle a diverse array of functional and ceremonial spaces, such as pillared halls, open courts, inhabitable corridors, and shrines, all designed to accommodate the temple’s diverse civic and religious functions. In addition, it has markets, private shrines, places of resting, dwellings for priests and ceremonial sites.” ^[1] The following quote also suggests that both irrigation systems and drinking water supply systems were likely present during this period due to the presence of various water tanks around the temple complex of Pudu Mandapa. “Water may have been supplied by either the small octagonal tank that lies between the Pudu Mandapa and the Raya Gopura that is called the Vasanta Tank on Francis’ 1906 plan of the temple, or from the Elukakalkkulam (‘Seven Seas Tank’). This festival tank (teppakkulam) was built according to an inscription in c. 1516/7 as the gift of the Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya and was located about one hundred metres east of the Raya Gopura through it is now built over.” ^[2]

[1]: (Ching et al. 2017, 595) Ching, Francis D.K. et. al., 2017. ‘Nayaks of Madurai’ In A Global History of Architecture. London: Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/TEDWQ8GJ/collection

[2]: (Branfoot 2001, 198) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

The following quote comes from diary of 16th and 17th century Flemish gemstone trader Jacques de Coutre. “Tuticorin [Thoothukudi] is a port located south of Cape Comorin. If necessary they can winter there with the carracks. There is a church run by Theatine fathers, but the land belongs to the nayak of Madurai.” ^[1]

[1]: (de Coutre 2014, 206) de Coutre, Jacques. 2014. The Memoirs and Memorials of Jacques de Coutre: Security, Trade and Society in 16th- and 17th – Century Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PFS4W8V3/collection

“The Pudu Mandapa was built early on in Tirumala’s reign, perhaps around 1626-33. The date of construction and patron are known, not from inscription, but from a number of texts, notably a palm-leaf manuscript in the possession of the temple, the Tiravalavayutaiyarkoyil Tiruppanimalai. This anthology of 106 poems gives details of the additions and renovations carried out in the temple with the names of the patron.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 192) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

Tamil script. “The place-history (Sanskrit sthalapurana, Tamil, talapuranam) is an important genre of Tamil literature as David Shulaman’s study of the Saiva material has demonstrated. Though related to pan-Indian Sanskrit purana literature, Tamil sthalapuranas are distinguished by their emphasis on a particular location, its sacred qualities and the unique character of the deity worshipped there. The strong belief in the concentrated presence of the sacred in particular places is a notable feature of Tamil culture.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 203) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

“Another phonetic feature of the speech of many Tamils is the fronting of the short vowel a which we represent generally as [a] in transcription and transliteration.” ^[1]

[1]: (Schiffman 1999, 17) Schiffman, Harold F. 1999. A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GBFQFXFD/collection

Hindu sacred texts. “The Pudu Mandapa is an example of a mandapa specifically built for the use during a festival when a deity comes out on procession from the temple’s main shrine and stays in the mandapa for a period of a few hours or many days. The expansion in number, size and grandeur of these festival mandapas is a notable feature of Nayaka-period temple architecture. These structures are for the deity both to rest in and to receive worshippers in and their form reflects these purposes.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 192) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

“All these sculptures of manifestations of Siva and other deities are familiar from other periods and regions of India, but what is striking about the Pudu Mandapa is the number of sculptures that can be identified only through knowledge of local myths and literature. By ‘local’ both the Tamil-speaking area generally and specifically the Madurai region are meant. The sculptures of the Padu Mandapa emphasise that knowledge of regional literature as well as the widely known puranic literature is essential in order to identify the subjects of sculpture.” ^[1] “The place-history (Sanskrit sthalapurana, Tamil, talapuranam) is an important genre of Tamil literature as David Shulaman’s study of the Saiva material has demonstrated. Though related to pan-Indian Sanskrit purana literature, Tamil sthalapuranas are distinguished by their emphasis on a particular location, its sacred qualities and the unique character of the deity worshipped there. The strong belief in the concentrated presence of the sacred in particular places is a notable feature of Tamil culture.” ^[1]

[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 203) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” ^[1] “The Pudu Mandapa is sometimes called the Vasanta or Spring Mandapa, a reference to the time of year when it is used. Vasanta is the Sanskrit term for the two Tamil months of Cittirai and Vaikaci (May-June).” ^[2]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection

[2]: (Branfoot 2001, 195) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection

Silver bullion and gold kobans. “Imported precious metals could either be traded for fanams from professional money changers or shroffs (cirappu, carappu) known as taksal shroffs (Hindi ‘mint’) specialised in buying bullion or foreign coins from the public or melted and converted directly at the local mint. A contemporary list of these merchants, active in 1680s, include names such as Vasanappa Nayaka (trading gold kobans and silver bullion for a total of 4, 200 fanams); Ponni Chitti (trading gold kobans for 6, 808 fanams) […]” ^[1]

[1]: (Vink 2015, 182) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection

“Between 1659-1660 and 1689-1690, silver bullion was sold by the Dutch at their local factories from prices ranging from 83.25 and 94 Madurai fanams per mark (1 mark = ca. 243.5 grams), while gold bullion fetched 1, 200 to 1, 330 fanams per mark. The so-called Dutch negotiepenningen or ‘commercial coins’ such as silver leeuwendaalders, rijksdaalders, bankdaalders, and ducatons were sold for 8.62 fanams (leeuwendaalders) to 11.5-11.75 fanams (ducatons).” ^[1]

[1]: (Vink 2015, 180) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection

“Between 1659-1660 and 1689-1690, silver bullion was sold by the Dutch at their local factories from prices ranging from 83.25 and 94 Madurai fanams per mark (1 mark = ca. 243.5 grams), while gold bullion fetched 1, 200 to 1, 330 fanams per mark. The so-called Dutch negotiepenningen or ‘commercial coins’ such as silver leeuwendaalders, rijksdaalders, bankdaalders, and ducatons were sold for 8.62 fanams (leeuwendaalders) to 11.5-11.75 fanams (ducatons).” ^[1]

[1]: (Vink 2015, 180) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection

The following are weight systems from the 17th Century during the period of the Nayaks of Madurai. “1 kandi – 500 pounds (ponden); 1 bahar – 480 pounds (ponden); 1 boi – ca. 220 pounds (ponden); 1 heavy quintal – 117.4 pounds (ponden); 1 light quintal – 102.8 pounds (ponden); 1 man – 24 pounds (ponden); 1 tolam – 100 palam or 16.5 pounds (ponden); 1 palam – 1/100 tolam or 0.17pound (pond); 1 (Amsterdam) pound (pond) – 0.494 kilograms or 494 grams.” ^[1]

[1]: (Vink 2015, 634) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection

“Essentially, the Tamil calendar is a solar calendar, with aspects of the lunar cycle incorporated for fixing certain religious and temple festivals. The Tamil month begins when the sun enters a particular iraci (rasi-zodiac). Therefore, the number of days in a particular month does not remain constant or equal, although on the average the length of the year is 365 days.” ^[1] “The Pudu Mandapa is sometimes called the Vasanta or Spring Mandapa, a reference to the time of year when it is used. Vasanta is the Sanskrit term for the two Tamil months of Cittirai and Vaikaci (May-June).” ^[2]

[1]: (Venkateswaran 2018, 274) Venkateswaran, T.V. 2018. ‘Ragoonatha Charry and his ‘Scientific’ Pancanga. In The Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7AH4P2I9/collection

[2]: (Branfoot 2001, 195) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection