The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley.
[1]
The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was ruled, between the mid-fourteenth century and the 1520s, by the Samma dynasty. In the fourteenth century, the latter faced a precarious geopolitical position, courting friendship with the Mongols as a counterbalance of the more immediate threat presented by the Delhi Sultanate. After that, the Samma were able to rule over Sind somewhat uneventfully, until 1520, when Shah Begh Argun, followed swiftly by Babur, founder of Mughal dynasty, conquered the region. The Arguns continued to govern Sind up until 1591, when it was fully integrated into the Mughal empire.
[2]
[3]
Population and political organization
Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million
[4]
, though Lakho provides an estimate of 2,200,000.
[5]
As for political organization, the polity was ruled by a jam, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself.
[6]
[1]: (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70.
[2]: (Lakho 2006, 3-5) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology
[3]: (Asimov and Bosworth 1998, 300-302) M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth. 1998. "History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, The Age of Achievement, AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One, The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, Multiple History Series." Paris: UNESCO.
[4]: (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology.
[5]: (Lakho 2006, 185-186) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology
[6]: (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh. Karachi: Sangam Publications.
| none | |
| none | |
| vassalage to [---] |
| Mughal Empire |
| Preceding: Delhi Sultanate (in_delhi_sultanate) [None] |
| unitary state |
| 140,914 km2 |
| 1,000,000 people | 1335 CE |
| 2,200,000 people | 1520 CE |
| unknown |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| absent |
| inferred present |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred absent | 1335 CE 1399 CE |
| unknown | 1400 CE 1449 CE |
| present | 1450 CE 1521 CE |
| inferred absent | 1335 CE 1399 CE |
| unknown | 1400 CE 1449 CE |
| present | 1450 CE 1521 CE |
| present |
| inferred present |
| absent |
| Year Range | Sind - Samma Dynasty (pk_samma_dyn) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1340 CE 1519 CE) | Kachi Plain |
[1]
The reason this was selected for as a peak date is that is coincides with a military campaigns northward. The evidence is very scarce, and seems to rely on hagiography of the king ruling at the time, but the borders of Sind seem to have advanced into Multan in the north and into parts of Baluchistan.
[1]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 109-110
[1]
1335-6 CE: The Samma rose in revolt and expanded the territory under their control.
[1]
1520-1521 CE: Their rule was brought to a halt after the region was conquered by Shah Beg Arghun, and later absorbed into the Mughal empire.
[2]
[3]
[1]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 1-2
[2]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp. 3-5
[3]: Asimov, M. S., and C. E. Bosworth. "History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, The Age of Achievement, AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One, The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, Multiple History Series." (1998).pp. 300-302
none: 1335-1336 CE; vassalage: 1336-1388 CE; none: 1389-1521 CE dates cannot yet be machine read
[1]
The evidence is very scanty, amounting to a few manuscripts and conflicting inscriptions.
[1]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.57-58
none: 1335-1336 CE; vassalage: 1336-1388 CE; none: 1389-1521 CE dates cannot yet be machine read
[1]
The evidence is very scanty, amounting to a few manuscripts and conflicting inscriptions.
[1]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.57-58
[Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom. [1]
[1]: Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. "Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur." Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17.
[Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom. [1]
[1]: Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. "Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur." Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17.
squared kilometers. This based on the modern area of the Pakistan province of Sindh, but given that the Sind also controlled portions of Balochistan and territory to the north this is most likely an underestimate. [1]
persons. 10 Lakh is a South Asian unit of measure for 100,000 and H.M Panhwar thinks that population estimates of more than this are unlikely for the period. [1] I have used this earlier population estimate to factor in population loss from climate change, the outbreak of the black death, and the after effects of the Mongol conquests. An unsupported estimate of a population of 2,200,000 can be found in an article on irrigation in The Samma Kindom of the Sindh and seems to indicate the population in the later period. [2]
[1]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 189
[2]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.185-186
persons. 10 Lakh is a South Asian unit of measure for 100,000 and H.M Panhwar thinks that population estimates of more than this are unlikely for the period. [1] I have used this earlier population estimate to factor in population loss from climate change, the outbreak of the black death, and the after effects of the Mongol conquests. An unsupported estimate of a population of 2,200,000 can be found in an article on irrigation in The Samma Kindom of the Sindh and seems to indicate the population in the later period. [2]
[1]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 189
[2]: Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.185-186
1. City: Thatta
[1]
2. Town: large numbers destroyed by the shifting current of the Indus river so very little archaeological evidence remains. A full list of 47 sites can be found in ’An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of Sindh’ for precursors. There seems to be evidence that the current of the Indus remained relatively stable and that waterways were maintained.
[2]
3. Village
[3]
[1]: Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 93-103
[2]: Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 94-95
[3]: Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 101
Many other faiths were practiced, and there were substantial religious communities of Buddhist, Hindu, and other faiths in the region. Sunni Islam was the politically dominant faith. In theory the Caliphate and their appointed governors were the head of the Sunni faith, but in practice local religious scholars (ulama) and aesthetics (Sufis) increasingly attracted the wider populace as definers of doctrine. Unlike the Orthodox or Catholic faith, the structure of the Islamic faiths were not clearly hierarchical and all were equal before Allah. In the Sind, a large percentage had converted by the beginning of the period. minority populations of followers of other faiths were most likely also present.
[1]
Sunni/Ismailism:
1. Caliph as head of the Muslim umma.
2. Imams, successors of the prophet and leaders of the Muslim world.
The Samma were recent converts, and Hindu practitioners survived well after the initial period of conversion.
[2]
[1]: Lapidus, History of Islamic Society p. 82,p. 215; Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 183
[2]: Wink, André. "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1." Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries (1990)pp.212-213
inferred, there is very little evidence to demonstrate command structures.
1. Emir
2. Landed Elite
3. Common Soldiers
The Samma, like the Soomras did not seem to have had access to Elephants, but did have access to Calvary.
[1]
[1]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192-3, 196-197
Governors of districts and divisions were appointed directly by the king, and were often closely related to the King, being close blood relatives such as brothers and close kin. There is no evidence to suggest this system of governance underwent any substantial change
[1]
1. Jam (King)
2. Governor of region (Uch,Bakhar,Mansura)
3. Governor of district
[1]: Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 134
Inferred from the following quotes, which broadly refer to India under early Muslim rule.
The muhtasib "was primarily a member of the judicial staff and acted as a kind of prosecutor in offences against religious law."
[1]
"Since the sultans were expected to enforce the law of the Shariah, they were also obliged to take the opinion of the ulema."
[2]
[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 276.
[2]: (Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.
Inferred from the following quotes, which broadly refer to Indian polities under early Muslim rule.
The king was the highest judge, although other judges and magistrates also operated in the state. There were different courts of law (primarily for Muslim and non-Muslim law codes) which needed separate judges.
[1]
"the sultan appointed judges to dispense justice and also acted as a court of appeal to hear cases against the decisions taken by judges."
[2]
reference of the Chief Qazi of Mansura in the writing of the contemporaneous Abdul Hassan.
[3]
[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 271-4.
[2]: (Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.
[3]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192
Sharia law.
The legal code was a fusion of Muslim law, and existing Hindu law codes regarding caste. The legal code was two tiered, with the non-muslim dhimmis allowed to practice there religion but also to pay a tax for the privilege. Alongside this legal system was a system known as Panchat or Bhayat. [1]
[1]: Maclean, Derryl N. ,Religion and society in Arab Sind. pp. 22-49-50
Inferred from the below quotes, which broadly referred to Muslim rule in India.
Different courts were used for the different law codes (which included the Muslim tashrii law and non-Muslim ghair tashrii law). Courts did not however extend into the more rural communities where village laws continued to be enforced.
[1]
"Cases involving non-Muslim subjects were decided according to their own particular religious laws by panchayats in the villages."
[2]
[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 272-4.
[2]: (Ahmed 2011, 99) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.
The river Indus remained stable for the majority of the period. Irrigation was the primary responsibility of the state [1]
[1]: Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh pp.121-134; Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad, The Samma Kingdom of Sindh, (institute of Sindhology, 2006) pp.183
Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences text from Arabic sources abroad.
Ibn Battuta described a kind of postal service for the Delhi Sultanate, but the literature consulted does not indicate whether any such system was retained in independent Sind. Moreover, it seems the Delhi Sultanate system may have solely served the rulers.
"Description of the Barid [Postal Service]. The postal service in India is of two kinds. The horse-post, which they call wlag, consists of horses belonging to the Sultan [with relays] every four miles. The service of couriers on foot has within the space of each mile three relays, which they call dawa,’ the dawa being a third of a mile, and a mile itself is called by them kuruh. The manner of its organization is as follows. At every third of a mile there is an inhabited village, outside which there are three pavilions. In these sit men girded up ready to move off, each of whom has a rod two cubits long with copper bells at the top. When a courier leaves the town he takes the letter in the fingers of one hand and the rod with the bells in the other, and runs with all his might. The men in the pavilions, on hearing the sound of the bells, get ready to meet him and when he reaches them one of them takes the letter in his hand and passes on, running with all his might and shaking his rod until he reaches the next däwa, and so they continue until the letter reaches its destination. This post is quicker than the mounted post, and they often use it to transport fruits from Khuräsän which are regarded as
great luxuries in India; the couriers put them on [woven baskets like] plates and carry them with great speed to the Sultan. In the same way they transport the principal crimi- nals; they place each man on a stretcher and run carrying the stretcher on their heads. Likewise they bring the Sultan’s drinking water when he resides at Dawlat Abad, carrying it from the river Kank [Ganges], to which the Hindus go on pilgrimage and which is at a distance of | forty days’ journey from there."
[1]
[1]: (Ibn Battuta, tr. H.A.R. Gibb 1971, pp. 594-595) The Travels of Ibn Battuta, translated by H. A. R. Gibb. 1971. Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GD7E8RNS/item-list
Ibn Battuta described a kind of postal service for the Delhi Sultanate, but the literature consulted does not indicate whether any such system was retained in independent Sind. Moreover, it seems the Delhi Sultanate system may have solely served the rulers.
"Description of the Barid [Postal Service]. The postal service in India is of two kinds. The horse-post, which they call wlag, consists of horses belonging to the Sultan [with relays] every four miles. The service of couriers on foot has within the space of each mile three relays, which they call dawa,’ the dawa being a third of a mile, and a mile itself is called by them kuruh. The manner of its organization is as follows. At every third of a mile there is an inhabited village, outside which there are three pavilions. In these sit men girded up ready to move off, each of whom has a rod two cubits long with copper bells at the top. When a courier leaves the town he takes the letter in the fingers of one hand and the rod with the bells in the other, and runs with all his might. The men in the pavilions, on hearing the sound of the bells, get ready to meet him and when he reaches them one of them takes the letter in his hand and passes on, running with all his might and shaking his rod until he reaches the next däwa, and so they continue until the letter reaches its destination. This post is quicker than the mounted post, and they often use it to transport fruits from Khuräsän which are regarded as
great luxuries in India; the couriers put them on [woven baskets like] plates and carry them with great speed to the Sultan. In the same way they transport the principal crimi- nals; they place each man on a stretcher and run carrying the stretcher on their heads. Likewise they bring the Sultan’s drinking water when he resides at Dawlat Abad, carrying it from the river Kank [Ganges], to which the Hindus go on pilgrimage and which is at a distance of | forty days’ journey from there."
[1]
[1]: (Ibn Battuta, tr. H.A.R. Gibb 1971, pp. 594-595) The Travels of Ibn Battuta, translated by H. A. R. Gibb. 1971. Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GD7E8RNS/item-list
Ibn Battuta described a kind of postal service for the Delhi Sultanate, but the literature consulted does not indicate whether any such system was retained in independent Sind. Moreover, it seems the Delhi Sultanate system may have solely served the rulers.
"Description of the Barid [Postal Service]. The postal service in India is of two kinds. The horse-post, which they call wlag, consists of horses belonging to the Sultan [with relays] every four miles. The service of couriers on foot has within the space of each mile three relays, which they call dawa,’ the dawa being a third of a mile, and a mile itself is called by them kuruh. The manner of its organization is as follows. At every third of a mile there is an inhabited village, outside which there are three pavilions. In these sit men girded up ready to move off, each of whom has a rod two cubits long with copper bells at the top. When a courier leaves the town he takes the letter in the fingers of one hand and the rod with the bells in the other, and runs with all his might. The men in the pavilions, on hearing the sound of the bells, get ready to meet him and when he reaches them one of them takes the letter in his hand and passes on, running with all his might and shaking his rod until he reaches the next däwa, and so they continue until the letter reaches its destination. This post is quicker than the mounted post, and they often use it to transport fruits from Khuräsän which are regarded as
great luxuries in India; the couriers put them on [woven baskets like] plates and carry them with great speed to the Sultan. In the same way they transport the principal crimi- nals; they place each man on a stretcher and run carrying the stretcher on their heads. Likewise they bring the Sultan’s drinking water when he resides at Dawlat Abad, carrying it from the river Kank [Ganges], to which the Hindus go on pilgrimage and which is at a distance of | forty days’ journey from there."
[1]
[1]: (Ibn Battuta, tr. H.A.R. Gibb 1971, pp. 594-595) The Travels of Ibn Battuta, translated by H. A. R. Gibb. 1971. Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GD7E8RNS/item-list
"The decline of the Delhi Sultanate in the 15th century led to a situation where each lord needed to fortify his province with numerous castles." [1] Reference for use of the moat as a form of fortification in northern India around 3rd century BCE - 300 CE. [2]
[1]: Konstantin S Nossov. 2012. Indian Castles 1206-1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate. Osprey Publishing.
[2]: (Singh 2008, 394) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.
"The decline of the Delhi Sultanate in the 15th century led to a situation where each lord needed to fortify his province with numerous castles." [1] Reference for use of the mud rampart in ancient India. [2]
[1]: Konstantin S Nossov. 2012. Indian Castles 1206-1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate. Osprey Publishing.
[2]: (Singh 2008, 336) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.
War elephant crews sometimes could use bow and arrow, long spear or throw javelins. [1] Did the Samma ever use war elephants? The Samma, like the Soomras did not seem to have had access to Elephants, but did have access to cavalry. [2]
[1]: (Bloom and Blair eds. 2009, 137) Johnathan M Bloom. Sheila S Blair. eds. 2009. Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Volume I. Abarquh To Dawlat Qatar. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192-3, 196-197
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] The Portuguese built a factory on the coastline and had access to gunpowder weaponry. [2] From second half of 15th century. [3] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Boyajian, James C. Portuguese trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580-1640. JHU Press, 2007.
[3]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] The Portuguese built a factory on the coastline and had access to gunpowder weaponry. [2] From second half of 15th century. [3] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Boyajian, James C. Portuguese trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580-1640. JHU Press, 2007.
[3]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] The Portuguese built a factory on the coastline and had access to gunpowder weaponry. [2] From second half of 15th century. [3] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Boyajian, James C. Portuguese trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580-1640. JHU Press, 2007.
[3]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] From second half of 15th century. [2] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] From second half of 15th century. [2] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
"it was only in the mid-fourteenth century that gunpowder ... was introduced into India, presumably by Mongols or Turks. This was then used in various explosive devices by the army." [1] From second half of 15th century. [2] Does the ’From the second half of 15th century’ reference which I found on the Delhi Sultanate sheet refer to both artillery and handguns, or does it contradict the first use of gunpowder? What did the source say, specifically?
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
[2]: Iqtidar Alam Khan, Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24, No. 2, May, 1981: 146-164.
According to Hasan Nizami’s Taj-ul-Maathir (13th CE) Muslim cavaliers also "used iron maces, battleaxes, daggers, and javelins" whereas the Hindu Rajputs had only spear or lance. [1]
[1]: (? 2013, 162-163) ?. Sirhindi, Abdullah. Daniel Coetzee. Lee W Eysturlid. eds. 2013. Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History’s Greatest Military Thinkers. The Ancient to Pre-Modern World, 3000 BCE - 1815 CE. Praeger. Santa Barbara.
According to the Ibn Battuta (14th century) "in North India mounted soldiers usually carried two swords: one, called the stirrup-sword, was attached to the saddle, while the other was kept in his quiver." [1]
[1]: (Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.
According to Hasan Nizami’s Taj-ul-Maathir (13th CE) Muslim cavaliers also "used iron maces, battleaxes, daggers, and javelins" whereas the Hindu Rajputs had only spear or lance. [1]
[1]: (? 2013, 162-163) ?. Sirhindi, Abdullah. Daniel Coetzee. Lee W Eysturlid. eds. 2013. Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History’s Greatest Military Thinkers. The Ancient to Pre-Modern World, 3000 BCE - 1815 CE. Praeger. Santa Barbara.
According to Hasan Nizami’s Taj-ul-Maathir (13th CE) Muslim cavaliers also "used iron maces, battleaxes, daggers, and javelins" whereas the Hindu Rajputs had only spear or lance. [1]
[1]: (? 2013, 162-163) ?. Sirhindi, Abdullah. Daniel Coetzee. Lee W Eysturlid. eds. 2013. Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History’s Greatest Military Thinkers. The Ancient to Pre-Modern World, 3000 BCE - 1815 CE. Praeger. Santa Barbara.
Used as war-elephants. [1] Was this reference for the Delhi Sultanate only? The Samma, like the Soomras did not seem to have had access to Elephants, but did have access to cavalry. [2] "But there can be little doubt that war-elephants were not used in the same numbers under the Islamic dynasties of India as they were in the early medieval period and before. We have seen that the Arabic sources described the most important ninth- and tenth-century Hindu dynasties as equipped with tens of thousands or more elephants of various kinds. Although it is unlikely that these numbers indicated war-elephants in a state of readiness - they probably included the guessed number of untamed and half-tamed ones -, and although some of the figures are contradictory, they are larger than those of later times. Certainly the Arabs of Sind, the Saffarids, and the later Buyids made almost no use of them at all." [3]
[1]: Digby, Simon. War-horse and Elephant in the Dehli Sultanate: A Study of Military Supplies. Oxford: Orient Monographs, 1971.
[2]: Panhwar, M. H. "Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192-3, 196-197
[3]: (Wink 1997, 102-103) Andre Wink. 1997. Al-Hind. The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Volume II. The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest 11th-13th Centuries. BRILL. Leiden.
e.g. used for shields. [1] Reconstructing the exact military equipment of the Samma dynasty is problematic as there is very little evidence available. The Sind had reliable sources of iron and horses, but seemed to have largely avoided the major conquest affecting their neighbors. The usual equipment of a foot solider may have been as simple as a spear and cloth clothing. As such, the coding below is based on earlier access to equipment and the weapons available to there neighbors. The Gujarat armies are likely to have been the most comparable.
[1]: Kennedy, the Armies of the Caliphs pp. 168-178
"The Delhi Sultanate had no navy and the Mughal Empire made sporadic attempts to construct a navy. The Mughals maintained a riverine fleet for coastal warfare but lacked a Blue Water Navy." [1]
[1]: (Roy 2015, 9) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.
"The Delhi Sultanate had no navy and the Mughal Empire made sporadic attempts to construct a navy. The Mughals maintained a riverine fleet for coastal warfare but lacked a Blue Water Navy." [1]
[1]: (Roy 2015, 9) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.