Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period

City & County of Honolulu :Population counts from missionary censuses of 1831-1832 and 1835-1836, censuses conducted by the Hawaiian government from 1850 to 1896, and censuses by the U.S. Bureau of the Census beginning in 1900. Data for 1831-1896 are on a de facto or unspecified basis; data for 1900 and later years are resident totals, including armed forces stationed in Hawaii. Based on county boundaries established in 1905 and 1909]. [Schmitt 1977]

in squared kilometers. Hawaii “consists of eight main islands and numerous smaller islets of coral and volcanic origin. Situated in the central Pacific Ocean, 2400 miles from San Francisco, the Hawaiian archipelago has an area of 6,450 sq. mi.” ^[1]

[1]: (Čuhaj 2012: 1213) Čuhaj, George S. ed. 2012. Standard Catalog of World Coins. 1801-1900. Iowa: Krause Publications. http://archive.org/details/standardcatalogo0000unse_n7n9. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GL3FWWA9

People. “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas there were three censuses, in 1860, 1866, and 1872. Summarized in the table below [reflected in above coding], they show the trend of population. It is believed that Hawaii’s total population reached its lowest point about 1875 or 1876. Before the next census year, 1878, it began the long upward climb that continued for many decades. But the Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian group did not get to its lowest point until long after 1878.” ^[1] While the population of Caucasian, Chinese and ‘Other’ inhabitants grew significantly during 1860-1872, the population of Hawaiians fell from 66,984 in 1860 to 51,531 in 1872. ^[2]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 177-178) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

[2]: (Kuykendall 1938: 177) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

People. “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas there were three censuses, in 1860, 1866, and 1872. Summarized in the table below [reflected in above coding], they show the trend of population. It is believed that Hawaii’s total population reached its lowest point about 1875 or 1876. Before the next census year, 1878, it began the long upward climb that continued for many decades. But the Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian group did not get to its lowest point until long after 1878.” ^[1] While the population of Caucasian, Chinese and ‘Other’ inhabitants grew significantly during 1860-1872, the population of Hawaiians fell from 66,984 in 1860 to 51,531 in 1872. ^[2]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 177-178) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

[2]: (Kuykendall 1938: 177) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

levels.: 1. Capital (Honolulu) :: 2. Towns ::: 3. Villages

levels.“The first author to examine the evolution of classical Hawaiian political system in the explicit context of its further evolution as a modern state in the nineteenth century is Kamanamaikalani Beamer. In his 2014 book, Beamer identifies three main traditional principles of governance that shaped the classical Hawaiian polity. First was the mō‘ī, a supreme ruler at the head of each polity, a hereditary position that carried not only effective political power but also high rank sanctioned by mana (spiritual power). Unlike the Proto-Polynesian term *‘ariki (tribal chief) and in its derivative form ali‘i (noble class) in classical Hawai‘i, the Hawaiian neologism mō‘ī can be safely translated into English as “monarch”—albeit carrying the same cautions as the terms “king,” “emperor,” and the like as translations for the titles of the rulers of other non- Western polities. The most basic prerequisite for becoming mō‘ī was to be a member of the ‘aha ali‘i (council of chiefs), an institution assembling the higher-ranking members of the chiefly class that was of divine origins and that would also serve as principal advisory body to the mō‘ī (Fornander 1996, 28–29). Below the mō‘ī, the government apparatus of a classical Hawaiian polity included various office holders. Besides various specialized personal attendants, these included the kuhina (executive counselors) of the ruler and, most important among them, the kuhina nui (chief executive), who in turn presided over kia‘āina (governors) (Keauokalani 1932, 132–133, 146–147) .” ^[1] : 1. mō‘ī (king/monarch) :: 2. kuhina nui (chief executive) ::: 3. kuhina (executive counsellors) :::: 4. kia‘āina (governors)

[1]: (Gonschor 2019: 20)Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

Members of the King’s Guard [Daws 1997]

With the arrival of the first Christian missionaries, Hawaii saw the establishment of a professional priesthood whose full-time role was to serve religious functions. [Daws 1997]

“The hotel was but one of the building operations carried on by the government in the reign of Kamehameha V. Comparable in scope was the erection of the government office and legislative building, Aliiolani Hale. Its construction was related to plans for a new royal palace. For a new palace the legislature of 1866 appropriated $40,000. A site was selected in the Makiki district and part of the land purchased, but various circumstances prevented the carrying on of the project, although the legis- latures of 1868 and 1870 each appropriated $60,000 and that of 1872 appropriated $50,000 for the purpose. The 1870 session furthermore appropriated $60,000 for ‘New Government Offices’.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 174) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

By 1838, therefore, we find the powers of the national government to be, in actual practice, divided between three agencies, the king, the kuhina-nui, and the council of chiefs. It thus appears that some part of the power of the absolute king had been transferred to the chiefs, whose status was thereby considerably improved. But up to 1839 this distribution of power had not extended beyond the chiefs. The common people were still under complete subjection to the alii and had practically no rights that the chiefs were bound to respect, except that of removing to the land of another chief. There had been no essential modification of the old feudal land system, and no formal organization of the government along lines familiar to foreigners [Kuykendall 1997, p. 153]

The next section of the constitution dealt with the tax officers ; they were to be appointed by the king and the kuhina-nui, and not only assessed and collected the taxes, but also served as judges in all cases arising under the tax laws and in cases between land agents and between landlords and their tenants. From their decisions an appeal might be taken to the governor and from the governor to the supreme court. The inferior or district judges on the several islands were to be appointed by the governors ; it was their business to hear and decide all cases arising under the laws except those within the jurisdiction of the tax officers ; from the decisions of these inferior judges an appeal might be taken to the supreme court. The supreme court was composed of the king, the kuhina-nui, and four other judges appointed by the lower branch of the legislature; this court had only appellate jurisdiction. [Kuykendall 1997, p. 169]

In Hawaii there was no specific constitutional or legal provision for such special courts and the existing courts of the country had not hitherto been called upon to exercise jurisdiction in cases of the character referred to. Now, as such cases arose during the middle 1840's, the attorney general seized upon them as affording opportunity to round out the judicial system Acting upon his advice and with his assistance, Governor Kekuanaoa, as judge of Oahu, assumed jurisdiction of these cases and decided them, as Judge Frear remarks, "in accordance with the principles of American and English jurisprudence." [Kuykendall 1997, pp. 241-242]

“One of the speakers at the first meeting of the Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society in April 1850 was Judge William Lee, formerly of New York. He reported on a bill before the legislature (which he himself had probably authored) which would provide the solution to both Hawaiian idleness and the quantities of labor needed for land development.” ^[1]

[1]: (Beechert 1985: 41) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H

“A ‘Declaration of Rights and the Laws of 1839’ provided the first criminal and civil code and the first regularization of taxation for the Hawaiian people. It has also been considered the first Hawaiian constitution. In many respects, the promulgation of the constitution of 1840, together with the legislation of 1841, completed the transformation of the Hawaiian system into a capitalist political economy with vestigial remains of the highly stratified system of ancient Hawaii.” ^[1] “In the Civil Code, compilation of which was provided for by the legislature of 1856 and which was enacted in the legislative session of 1858-59, the earlier postal laws (of 1846, 1851, and 1854) were revised, expanded, and codified as sections 397-415 of the Code.” ^[2]

[1]: (Beechert 1985: 25) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H

[2]: (Kuykendall 1938: 32) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

“An emerging judiciary system supported the new constitution and subsequent legislation. Established informally in 1829, district courts were made part of the constitutional system in 1840, drawing heavily upon American legal practice and, to some extent, the common law of Great Britain. To this rudimentary system was added a Judiciary Department in 1847 with three levels of courts. District courts, staffed with Hawaiian speaking magistrates, were established in twenty six districts. Not a court of record, the district court was the primary jurisdiction for the newly defined laborer - the Hawaiian commoner. All misdemeanors and civil matters involving a value of one hundred dollars or less came to this court. Circuit courts and a supreme court completed the judiciary system. These legal developments officially ended the traditional structure of Hawaiian authority. The chiefs thus became an upper class without special power. Their function in society was left in limbo and their legal functions had been usurped by a code of laws and authorities responsible to a central government in which the chiefs had no ascribed role.” ^[1]

[1]: (Beechert 1985: 25) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H

“In field practice, the greatest forward step was the introduction of irrigation. Periods of drouth had been one of the un- predictable hazards of the business and in some years had caused serious losses. The first extensive use of irrigation was on the Lihue plantation on Kauai, where a ditch about ten miles long, with tunnels included, was dug in 1856 under the supervision of William H. Rice, manager of the plantation. In succeeding years, the ditch was lengthened, and the supply of water thus obtained saved the plantation from failure. A visitor to Maui in the spring of 1863 observed ditches ‘cut along the foot of the hills, for conveying the waters of the mountain streams’ to the sugar plantations in the vicinity of Wailuku. In 1866, a ‘broad and deep ditch, four miles long’ was dug to bring water onto the Waihee (or Lewers) plantation in the same district. Manager of this plantation was Samuel T. Alexander who, at a later time, with Henry P. Baldwin constructed the much greater Hamakua ditch on the same island. References to irrigation are not numerous, but it is evident that the practice was adopted on other plantations ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 144) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

A chief had, among his houses, a hale papa‘a or storehouse. (The word papa‘a in this case should be hyphenated to pa-pa‘a, a solid enclosure.) Here were kept his extra mats, tapas, nets, dried fish and whatever else he might have. It was usually built up on posts to prevent dogs and pigs from getting in after the food. A very prosperous chief had several of these hale papa‘a, with stewards to watch over his property. [webpage_The Polynesian family system in...]

The ‘auwai was used and maintained by the families that lived in the ahupua‘a. The konohiki called people together to build and clean the ‘auwai. Farmers were able to use water from the ‘auwai to irrigate their lo‘i kalo. But their water use depended on how many of their family members helped to mālama (care for) the ditch system. [webpage_Hui Mālama 'Auwai O Nu'uanu - History...]

Churches; barracks; prisons; post office; customhouses; warehouses; schoolhouses; insane asylum; quarantine building. “By 1870, when the Hawaiian Evangelical Association observed with a great jubilee celebration the fiftieth anniversary of the coming of the first group of missionaries, there were fifty-eight churches in the association, with a membership of 14,850, approximately one-fourth of the whole population of the kingdom.” ^[1] “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas and Lunalilo, approximately a million dollars were spent by the government on public works. The Hawaiian Hotel and Aliiolani Hale accounted for about a quarter of that sum. One hundred and eighty thousand dollars went into the construction of buildings of lesser magnitude—lIolani Barracks, a new prison, Royal Mausoleum, post office, customhouses, warehouses, schoolhouses, insane asylum, quarantine building.” ^[2]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 100) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

[2]: (Kuykendall 1938: 174) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Barracks; prisons; post office; customhouses; warehouses; schoolhouses; insane asylum; quarantine building “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas and Lunalilo, approximately a million dollars were spent by the government on public works. The Hawaiian Hotel and Aliiolani Hale accounted for about a quarter of that sum. One hundred and eighty thousand dollars went into the construction of buildings of lesser magnitude—lIolani Barracks, a new prison, Royal Mausoleum, post office, customhouses, warehouses, schoolhouses, insane asylum, quarantine building.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 174) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Churches. “The funeral of Kamehameha III was held on January 10, 1855. On the following day occurred the formal inauguration of Kamehameha IV in an impressive ceremony in Kawaiahao Church.” ^[1] “By 1870, when the Hawaiian Evangelical Association observed with a great jubilee celebration the fiftieth anniversary of the coming of the first group of missionaries, there were fifty-eight churches in the association, with a membership of 14,850, approximately one-fourth of the whole population of the kingdom.” ^[2]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 34) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

[2]: (Kuykendall 1938: 100) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Museums; schools; “Along similar lines of collecting and disseminating knowledge of Oceania, the Hawaiian National Museum, founded by Kamehameha V in 1872, was explicitly reconceptualized as a pan-Oceanian institution in the 1880s (Kamehiro 2009, 101). According to Mellen, in April 1882, shortly before his appointment as premier, Gibson advocated in the legislature for a museum ‘for the preservation of Polynesian literature and culture’ (1958, 119).” ^[1] “Furthermore, in February 1883, the king had Charles Bishop removed as president of the Board of Education, in which capacity he had continued to cause damage to the country’s development by promoting only mediocre education at the kingdom’s public schools while trying to contain high-level scholarship to the children of the Missionary Party and their affiliates (Goodyear-Ka’ōpua 2014).” ^[2]

[1]: (Gonschor 2019: 94) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

[2]: (Gonschor 2019: 89) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

The first dedicated theatre, the Thespian, an adobe building at King and Maunakea Streets, opened in September 1847. The Royal Hawaiian followed the next year at Hotel and Alakea Streets, and the Varieties in 1853. Nearly thirty years later, sugar and banking millionaire William G. Irwin's Music Hall, across from 'Iolani Palace, became the place to go until destroyed by fire. Rebuilt as the Opera House (at left) by Irwin and partners John and Adolph Spreckels, and designed by C. B. Ripley & C. W. Dickey, it presented the first moving pictures publicly shown in Hawai'i in 1897 [webpage_Theatres of Hawai'i]

Barracks; prisons; post office; customhouses; warehouses; schoolhouses; insane asylum; quarantine building “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas and Lunalilo, approximately a million dollars were spent by the government on public works. The Hawaiian Hotel and Aliiolani Hale accounted for about a quarter of that sum. One hundred and eighty thousand dollars went into the construction of buildings of lesser magnitude—lIolani Barracks, a new prison, Royal Mausoleum, post office, customhouses, warehouses, schoolhouses, insane asylum, quarantine building.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 174) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

“Road making as practiced in Hawaii in the middle of the nineteenth century was a very superficial operation, in most places consisting of little more than clearing a right of way, doing a little rough grading, and sup- plying bridges of a sort where they could not be dispensed with. Because the roads were not well constructed, repairs and maintenance absorbed most of the available funds. There were serious obstacles that prevented the development of a good highway system: lack of a general understanding of the importance of good roads; lack of over-all planning and co- ordination between different districts; lack of engineering skill and competent supervision; and lack of funds with which to finance a thorough- going road program. At one period, the road supervisors in the various districts were elected by the voters of those districts.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 26) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

“Honolulu, with the best harbor in the group, serving a rich and productive area, attracted the trading ships and became the commercial metropolis of the kingdom, and finally also the political capital. The growth of trade at Honolulu in the early decades of the nineteenth century caused the establishment of some facilities in the harbor, such as wharves and a shipyard.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 19) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Maritime transportation: Given the island geography, ocean routes were the primary mode of long-distance transport for goods and people. [Daws 1997]

“Road making as practiced in Hawaii in the middle of the nineteenth century was a very superficial operation, in most places consisting of little more than clearing a right of way, doing a little rough grading, and supplying bridges of a sort where they could not be dispensed with.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 26) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Churches. “By 1870, when the Hawaiian Evangelical Association observed with a great jubilee celebration the fiftieth anniversary of the coming of the first group of missionaries, there were fifty-eight churches in the association, with a membership of 14,850, approximately one-fourth of the whole population of the kingdom.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 100) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Royal Mausoleum. “During the reigns of the last two Kamehamehas and Lunalilo, approximately a million dollars were spent by the government on public works. The Hawaiian Hotel and Aliiolani Hale accounted for about a quarter of that sum. One hundred and eighty thousand dollars went into the construction of buildings of lesser magnitude—lIolani Barracks, a new prison, Royal Mausoleum, post office, customhouses, warehouses, schoolhouses, insane asylum, quarantine building.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 174) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

Books; newspapers; articles; government documents etc “In February 1873, Gibson launched Nuhou: The Hawaiian News, a bilingual newspaper, later continued monolingually as Ka Nuhou Hawaii, that strongly advocated for the protection of Hawai’I’s independence and denounced schemes that might jeopardize this independence, such as the lease of Ke Awalau o Pu’uloa (Pearl Harbor Lagoon) to the United States proposed by Charles Bishop and his cronies of the Missionary Party (Adler and Kamins Internationalism 1986, 90–95).” ^[1] “The three quotations that open this chapter illustrate the import of these policies. The first, part of an official declaration of the Hawaiian government in 1883, and the second, a guest editorial in a Hawaiian newspaper in 1887, show that, by the 1880s, the vision formulated three decades earlier not only had become official Hawaiian government policy but had also been disseminated through the vernacular media to wider society. The third, by German scholar Haushofer four decades later, puts Hawai’I’s late nineteenth-century pan-Oceanian policy in a geopolitical context of the Pacific peoples’ struggle for self-determination in the longue durée.” ^[2] “In 1857, St. Julian published his second book, an Official Report on Central Polynesia presented to the Hawaiian government, which contained a detailed gazetteer of all Central Polynesian islands and chiefdoms, compiled by Edward Reeve, St. Julian’s chancellor and later successor in office, which should be regarded as one of the most detailed compilations of knowledge of the islands available during the mid-nineteenth century (St. Julian 1857).” ^[3]

[1]: (Gonschor 2019: 68) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

[2]: (Gonschor 2019: 89) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

[3]: (Gonschor 2019: 50) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

After the arrival of American missionaries in 1820, efforts to introduce a written language began. By 1826, missionaries collaborated with Native Hawaiians to develop a Hawaiian alphabet based on the Latin script. This alphabet consisted of 13 letters (5 vowels and 8 consonants) [webpage_Hawaiian language, alphabet and...]

Petroglyphs: Carvings in stone (ki‘i pōhaku) found across the islands. These symbols often depicted human figures, animals, or abstract shapes. [Daws 1997]

English.

In Hawai‘i, string figures are known as hei. Hawaiians, both adults and children, created these figures from images they observed in nature. The string figure was created using cordage as the player would oli, telling the story of each hei. [Daws 1997]

Scientific literature was introduced through missionary education and government initiatives. Forms included mathematics primers, natural science texts, agricultural research. [Daws 1997]

The Bible, translated into Hawaiian by the 1830s, became the dominant sacred text. [Daws 1997]

In addition to the Bible, missionaries produced extensive religious literature, including sermons, catechisms, hymnals, and moral instruction manuals. [Daws 1997]

Missionaries and government officials produced and distributed texts aimed at providing guidance on various topics. Examples include agricultural manuals for sugarcane cultivation, public health guides on managing diseases, and educational materials for basic skills like arithmetic and literacy. [Daws 1997]

“Kalākaua’s and Gibson’s “New Departure” into pan-Oceanianism also involved intensified data and item collecting. Building on St. Julian’s correspondence and reports, including Reeve’s invaluable 1857 gazetteer, Gibson’s department was interested in extending its knowledge of the region. A 1989 index of registered maps lists about a hundred maps of Oceania other than the Hawaiian Islands in the Hawaiian Government Survey’s collection, most of them British and US naval charts, others manuscript maps, some of them possibly made by Hawaiian expeditions to these islands.” ^[1]

[1]: (Gonschor 2019: 94) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

“In the same vein, the first English-language textbook on Hawaiian history for the kingdom’s public schools, published in 1891 but likely prepared throughout the 1880s, repeats the pattern of the 1840 Lāhaināluna atlas by displaying first a map of Oceania before one of the Hawaiian Islands, confirming the perspective of Hawai’i belonging in Oceania (Alexander 1891, 18–19).” ^[1]

[1]: (Gonschor 2019: 94) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ

David Malo, one of the earliest Native Hawaiian scholars and historians, transcribed traditional Hawaiian knowledge, including mele and oral traditions, in the 19th century. His work is compiled in Hawaiian Antiquities. [Malo_et_al 2020]

After the arrival of Christian missionaries in 1820, the Gregorian calendar was introduced and became a standard written document for administrative, educational, and religious purposes. [Daws 1997]

Pre-contact Hawaiian society relied on a barter system and the redistribution of goods by aliʻi (chiefs). [Daws 1997]

Pre-contact Hawaiian society operated on a barter and redistribution system without a tradition of using precious metals for exchange. After Western contact, the Hawaiian economy transitioned directly to the use of coined money [Kuykendall 1997]

Hawaiian seminary notes were the first forms of paper money in the islands kingdom, introduced in 1843. [webpage_Hawaiian seminary notes first for...]

Hawaiian seminary notes were the first forms of paper money in the islands kingdom, introduced in 1843. [webpage_Hawaiian seminary notes first for...]

Hawaiian dollar (or dala) and cents. ^[1]

[1]: (Čuhaj 2012: 1213) Čuhaj, George S. ed. 2012. Standard Catalog of World Coins. 1801-1900. Iowa: Krause Publications. http://archive.org/details/standardcatalogo0000unse_n7n9. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GL3FWWA9

Spanish and Mexican silver coins (e.g., pesos and reales), which were common in early trade. American and British coins, which became more dominant as foreign influence increased. Even after the Kingdom introduced its own coinage in 1847 and later paper currency, foreign coins remained a significant part of the monetary system due to the Kingdom’s reliance on international trade and foreign settlers. [Kuykendall 1997]

Hawaiian society relied on a redistributive economy managed by aliʻi (chiefs), where goods like fish, taro, and feathers had high value but were exchanged within a system of tribute and reciprocity, not as standardized forms of money. After Western contact, Hawaiʻi transitioned to a monetary system based on coins and paper currency. Articles with regular uses (e.g., food or tools) continued to be bartered in rural areas but were not systematically used as money. [Kuykendall 1997]

“The harbor improvements were carried on in spite of very serious financial difficulties which embarrassed the government for many years after 1854. In an effort to relieve the strain already being felt, the legislature in 1855 passed a loan act authorizing the government to borrow a sum not exceeding $150,000. But the government could obtain only a small part of this amount and therefore had to keep expenditures within the narrowest possible limits. No public works were undertaken except those deemed to be of vital importance; improvement of Honolulu harbor fell within this category.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 22) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

“In the Civil Code, compilation of which was provided for by the legislature of 1856 and which was enacted in the legislative session of 1858-59, the earlier postal laws (of 1846, 1851, and 1854) were revised, expanded, and codified as sections 397-415 of the Code. Here, for the first time in the laws, we read of “‘a post-office system for the Hawaiian Kingdom,” which was to be superintended by a “‘Postmaster-General,’’ who was ‘“‘ex officio Postmaster of Honolulu.” Section 406 gave the interisland postage rates mentioned above, and the foreign postage rates were prescribed in section 403. The law as a whole furnished the basis for a postal system adapted to the conditions existing in the Hawaiian kingdom.” ^[1]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 32) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

“In the Civil Code, compilation of which was provided for by the legislature of 1856 and which was enacted in the legislative session of 1858-59, the earlier postal laws (of 1846, 1851, and 1854) were revised, expanded, and codified as sections 397-415 of the Code. Here, for the first time in the laws, we read of ‘a post-office system for the Hawaiian Kingdom,’ which was to be superintended by a ‘Postmaster-General,’’ who was ‘ex officio Postmaster of Honolulu.’ Section 406 gave the interisland postage rates mentioned above, and the foreign postage rates were prescribed in section 403. The law as a whole furnished the basis for a postal system adapted to the conditions existing in the Hawaiian kingdom.” ^[1] “In addition, Hawai’i also entered a multilateral treaty when it joined the Universal Postal Union, the first global international organization, in 1885.” ^[2]

[1]: (Kuykendall 1938: 32) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB

[2]: (Gonschor 2019: 37) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ