Frederick III from the House of Habsburg was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, marking the beginning of an almost unbroken line of Habsburg Emperors.
[1]
He elevated the Duchy of Austria to Archduchy, a unique title specifically created for the House of Habsburg which elevated the Archduke above all other Dukes which signifies Austria’s position of power and influence within the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), but it was through the astute marriage policies—often summarized by the motto "Let others wage war, but you, happy Austria, marry"—that they significantly expanded their power.
[2]
Notably, the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477 brought the Habsburgs into possession of the Burgundian Netherlands, a valuable and strategically located set of territories.
The reign of Maximilian I (1493-1519) also saw further consolidation of Habsburg power within the HRE, culminating in his grandson Charles V’s election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles V’s vast empire, spanning from Spain to parts of Italy, Germany, and the Americas, marked the peak of Habsburg power, embodying the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets." His reign was marked by religious upheaval, including the Reformation, and constant military engagements, most notably against France and the Ottoman Empire.
[2]
The Kingdom of Bohemia was incorporated into Habsburg domains during this period. The process began with the marriage of Ferdinand I, a Habsburg, to Anna of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, strategically positioning the Habsburgs for a claim to the Bohemian throne. The opportunity for direct control came in 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, after which Ferdinand I claimed the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary due to the death of Louis II, who died without an heir at the battle.
[3]
The period also witnessed the beginning of the long-standing struggle with the Ottoman Empire, including the first siege of Vienna in 1529, which marked the Ottoman Empire’s furthest advance into Europe. The military engagements against the Ottomans continued for decades, influencing the political and military strategies of the Habsburgs.
[4]
The period culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) , a defining conflict of this era. The war started as a religious conflict but evolved into a broader power struggle within Europe. The Habsburgs’ role in the war was central, with Ferdinand II’s attempts to consolidate Catholic power within the Empire leading to widespread conflict. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which had profound implications for the Habsburgs and the HRE, leading to the recognition of the sovereignty of the constituent states of the Empire and a decline in the central power of the Emperor.
[5]
[1]: Heinig, Kaiser Friedrich III. (1440-1493). Zotero link: LA5W94UA
[2]: Judson, The Habsburg Empire. Zotero link: SFXDYXYU
[3]: Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009). Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP
[4]: Klaus-Jürgen Bremm, Die Türken Vor Wien: Zwei Weltmächte Im Ringen Um Europa. Zotero link: VYHYLAE2
[5]: Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg. Zotero link: PULFEDKX
| 33 U |
| Habsburg Empire II |
| Vienna | 1440 CE 1583 CE |
| Prague | 1583 CE 1611 CE |
| Vienna | 1611 CE 1804 CE |
| 33N |
| es_spanish_emp_1 personal union with at_habsburg_1 | 1519 CE 1556 CE |
| Habsburg Empire III |
| Succeeding: Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II (at_habsburg_2) [continuity] |
| 20,000 people | 1500 CE |
| 32,000 people | 1550 CE |
| 50,000 people | 1600 CE |
| 225,390 km2 | 1648 CE |
| 1,250,000 people | 1500 CE |
| 8,000,000 people | 1600 CE |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| Year Range | Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I (at_habsburg_1) was in: |
|---|
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (‘Habsburg Monarchy’) ‘Habsburg Monarchy’, in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_monarchy&oldid=1087774624. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMSU7WA3
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (‘Habsburg Monarchy’) ‘Habsburg Monarchy’, in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_monarchy&oldid=1087774624. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMSU7WA3
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (‘Habsburg Monarchy’) ‘Habsburg Monarchy’, in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_monarchy&oldid=1087774624. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMSU7WA3
Assumed that the peak date in terms of total territory and population was before Charles I divided the Habsburg empire into the Austrian and Spanish branches in 1554.
Charles I (Charles V) held the Archduchy of Austria from 1519 to 1521 before he abdicated as Duke of Austria in favour of his brother, Ferdinand I, who had also been made King of the Romans in 1531. Ferdinand continued to rule in his name as Imperial Lieutenant until Charles I’s abdication in 1556. [1] [2] [3]
[1]: Martyn C. Rady, The Emperor Charles V, Seminar studies in history (London ; New York: Longman, 1988). Zotero link: Y6MXWNC7
[2]: Fichtner, Paula. 2017. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. 116, 123, 124–5, 130.
[3]: Whaley, Joachim. 2018. "The early modern empire (1): from Maximilian I to the Thirty Years Wars" in The Holy Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Inhabitants. Approximate figures for the population of Vienna. [1]
[1]: (‘European Urban Population, 700 - 2000’) ‘European Urban Population, 700 - 2000’. https://easy.dans.knaw.nl/ui/datasets/id/easy-dataset:197830/tab/2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8E2PTFU3
Inhabitants. Approximate figures for the population of Vienna. [1]
[1]: (‘European Urban Population, 700 - 2000’) ‘European Urban Population, 700 - 2000’. https://easy.dans.knaw.nl/ui/datasets/id/easy-dataset:197830/tab/2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8E2PTFU3
in squared kilometers.In the last two years of his reign between 1554-1556, Charles I of Spain (Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor) divided the Habsburg Empire between a German-Austrian branch and a Spanish branch of the dynasty in order to consolidate power within the family. He abdicated in 1521 as Duke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor in favour of his brother, Ferdinand I, who ruled the Austrian branch. And, in 1556, he retired as King of Spain (which also included the Spanish Netherlands and the colonies in South America) in favour of his son Phillip II. Due to this divide, the Austrian territory was reduced at this time. In 1648, at the end of the Thirty Years’ War – and the end of this polity period – the Austrian Habsburgs had a territory of around 225,390 km2. [1]
[1]: (‘Holy Roman Empire’) ‘Holy Roman Empire’, in Wikipedia, 17 May 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holy_Roman_Empire&oldid=1088421775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4YKJ5ZPU
People.In 1500 the territories held 1-1.5 million subjects. [1] By the beginning of the sixteenth century there were around 4 million people in Bohemia, 2 million in Hungary and 2 million in Austria. [2]
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 8) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 90) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
People.In 1500 the territories held 1-1.5 million subjects. [1] By the beginning of the sixteenth century there were around 4 million people in Bohemia, 2 million in Hungary and 2 million in Austria. [2]
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 8) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 90) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
levels. [1] [2] : 1. Capital city (Vienna or Prague) :: 2. Major cities ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets
[1]: (Curtis 2013: 101, 167) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
[2]: (Berenger 1994: 22) Berenger, Jean. 1994. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1272-1700, trans. C.A. Simpson. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URCREW37
levels. [1] <: 1. Pope :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Abbots ::::: 5. Chaplains
[1]: (Fichtner 2017: xxi) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
levels.“Austria’s hereditary lands was divided among several members of the family, and as a result, distinct archducal courts came into being at Innsbruck (1564–1665) and Graz (1564–1619). These constituted a discernable, second level of princely courts within the Austrian Habsburg territories, one step below the imperial court in Prague and Vienna… The Austrian branch of the dynasty underwent a rapid expansion in numbers. At its highpoint in 1613, there were no fewer than 14 archdukes and 13 archduchesses, and regardless of their seniority, all of them had to be provided for in a Standesgemäß fashion. If they reached adulthood, they received a household of their own. In quite a few cases they were allowed their own residence, and some went on to become the governors of provinces, or, as in the case of the aforementioned archduke Albert, rulers in their own right. Others were provided with ecclesiastical benefices, which gave them access to important revenues and sometimes allowed them to act as independent rulers, as was the case with prince-bishoprics, or grandmasterships of the Teutonic Order. [1] Curtis (2013) suggests three layers of political power that had to work with each other across the domains. All levels of administration fed into the imperial power but were ultimately self-governing at regional level: [2] : 1. Monarch and Holy Roman Emperor : 1.2. Imperial Government : 1.3. Imperial/Privy Council (The court council included a chancellery and treasury.) [3] : 1.4. Secretaries, ministers etc. :: 2. Regional ruler (eg archduke, prince) :: 2.2. Local Government :: 2.3. Local council ::: 3. Local nobility (tax collection, local authority) :::: 4. Lesser administrative positions (i.e. administrators, accountants)
[1]: (Vermeir et al 2021: 17-18) Vermeir, René, Raeymaekers, Dries, and Hortal Muñoz, José Eloy. 2021. A Constellation of Courts: The Courts and Households of Habsburg Europe, 1555–1665, vol. 15. Leuven University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt14jxsxk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRBKH6ZG
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 98, 101, 128) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
[3]: (Fichtner 2017: 18) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
Mines and quarries were present across the empire. Silver in particular was one of the greatest sources of wealth in Europe until gold was mined in South America. [1] [2]
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 8, 18) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 101) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
Animal enclosures and stables, farmland may have been enclose, palace enclosures etc.
The Habsburg authorities took control of the print press in 1585 and a court printer was appointed to print laws, propaganda and government instructions. [1] Newspapers were first established from 1605 in Strasbourg. [2]
[1]: (Golob 2021: 90) Golob, Andreas. 2021. ‘Rural Officials Discover the Printing Press in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy’, in Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Nina Lamal, Jamie Cumby, and Helmer J. Helmers. Brill. 86–108, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbf2.9. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TKZHDUJ
[2]: (Hillgärtner 2021: 134) Hillgärtner, Jan. 2021. ‘Newspapers and Authorities in Seventeenth-Century Germany’, in Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Nina Lamal, Jamie Cumby, and Helmer J. Helmers. Brill. 134–47, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbf2.11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/57ZGSTKK
Astronomy, mathematics, zoology, and botony were particularly popular during this period. [1] [2]
[1]: Beller 2006: 55) Beller, Steven. 2006. A Concise History of Austria (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. http://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00stev. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3ZFP3F7X
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 142) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
Sermons were printed in some newspapers. There were also anti-Catholic books printed which were banned and burned along with Lutheran texts in 1521. [1] [2]
[1]: (Hillgärtner 2021: 70, 143) Hillgärtner, Jan. 2021. ‘Newspapers and Authorities in Seventeenth-Century Germany’, in Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Nina Lamal, Jamie Cumby, and Helmer J. Helmers. Brill. 134–47, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbf2.11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/57ZGSTKK
[2]: (Curtis 2013: 80) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
In 1527 and 1537 decrees regarding correct etiquette were issued by Ferdinand I. [1]
[1]: (Vermeir et al 2021: 11)Vermeir, René, Raeymaekers, Dries, and Hortal Muñoz, José Eloy. 2021. A Constellation of Courts: The Courts and Households of Habsburg Europe, 1555–1665, vol. 15. Leuven University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt14jxsxk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRBKH6ZG
Philosophy was popular at this time, with many monarchs being interested in the subject. No direct mentions of text specifically but other polities in Europe at the time had them printed so it is safe to assume they were here also. [1]
[1]: (Curtis 2013: 170, 236) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92
In 1623 coins in the Habsburg Empire were valued according to the Bavarian system. [1]
[1]: (Hillgärtner 2021: 140) Hillgärtner, Jan. 2021. ‘Newspapers and Authorities in Seventeenth-Century Germany’, in Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Nina Lamal, Jamie Cumby, and Helmer J. Helmers. Brill. 134–47, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbf2.11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/57ZGSTKK
There were coins from the various countries in the empire, including the Netherlands (Guilders), Spain, Italy, Austria and Germany. [1]
[1]: (Hillgärtner 2021: 82) Hillgärtner, Jan. 2021. ‘Newspapers and Authorities in Seventeenth-Century Germany’, in Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Nina Lamal, Jamie Cumby, and Helmer J. Helmers. Brill. 134–47, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbf2.11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/57ZGSTKK
The fastest communication during this period would have likely been horse relay via land.
During this period the Austrian measurement systems were derived from Prussian and German systems. Pfund (pound), Stein (stone), Zentner (quintal) etc. [1]
[1]: (Cardarelli 2003: 102) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UWS9ZN34
During this period the Austrian measurement systems were derived from Prussian and German systems. Dry capacity = Scheffel, Metzen, Dreissinger etc. Liquids = Fuder, Oxhoft, Ohm, Eimer etc. [1]
[1]: (Cardarelli 2003: 103) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UWS9ZN34
During this period the Austrian measurement systems were derived from Prussian and German systems. Meile (mile), Ruthe (yard), Fuss (foot), Zoll (inch), Linie (line) etc. [1]
[1]: (Cardarelli 2003: 99-100) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UWS9ZN34
During this period the Austrian measurement systems were derived from Prussian and German systems. Meile (mile), Ruthe (yard), Fuss (foot), Zoll (inch), KLinie (line). [1]
[1]: (Cardarelli 2003: 100) Cardarelli, François. 2003. Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins. London; New York: Springer. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UWS9ZN34