No General Descriptions provided.
inferred Absent | 1640 CE 1750 CE |
Uncoded | 1751 CE 1806 CE |
inferred Absent | 1640 CE 1750 CE |
Uncoded | 1751 CE 1806 CE |
state salary |
Present |
Absent | 1640 CE 1796 CE |
Present | 1797 CE 1806 CE |
Present |
Present | 1640 CE 1750 CE |
inferred Present | 1751 CE 1807 CE |
Present |
Present |
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Year Range | Portuguese Empire - Early Modern (pt_portuguese_emp_2) was in: |
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Luxury Precious Metal: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: | foreign |
Gold; silver. “However, there was one respect in which the Portuguese case stood out as exceptional. This was the sudden inflow into the kingdom of wealth from the newly-discovered gold and diamond mines of Brazil. It was especially this fortuitous development that made the first half of the eighteenth century for Portugal an age of gold and Baroque splendour… The earliest recorded intimation that Portugal might be entering a new age of gold dates from 1697, when the French ambassador reported that the equivalent of about 115 kilograms of the metal had arrived in Lisbon from Brazil. By 1711 the annual amount of Brazilian gold legally shipped to Portugal had risen to almost 15,000 kilograms. In other words, imports had grown more than a hundred-fold in just fourteen years. Suddenly Portugal was receiving from its prize overseas possession far more gold than any other European imperial power had ever before extracted from a colony. Legal gold imports into Lisbon eventually peaked at 30,112 kilograms in 1720. A gradual decline then set in; but annual consignments still averaged 18,000 to 20,000 kilograms over the next three decades, before a steeper fall commenced. Of course, these figures are minimums only. They are gleaned from fragmentary sources, they take no account of smuggling and they certainly understate the quantities actually shipped – probably by substantial margins. All guesstimates are just that; but according to João Lucio de Azevedo, during the course of the entire eighteenth century gold worth approximately 100 million pounds sterling was transferred from Brazil to Portugal.” [Disney 2009, pp. 252-253] “By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings:… Into the category of miscellaneous, numbering some forty-four items, would fall topazes, amethysts, gold, silver, and diamonds.” [Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 128-129] “However, there was one respect in which the Portuguese case stood out as exceptional. This was the sudden inflow into the kingdom of wealth from the newly-discovered gold and diamond mines of Brazil.” [Disney 2009, p. 252]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: | foreign |
Indigo; cochineal; tobacco; pepper; clove; cinnamon; nutmeg; ginger. “Pombaline economic policy in the 1760s tried to combat this new situation by promoting the production of any colonial commodities, old or new, which seemed to have export potential… One governor who paid good heed to these orders was Luı´s de Almeida, marquis of Lavradio, who was governor of Bahia (1768–9), then viceroy of Brazil (1769–79). Lavradio encouraged expansion of tobacco cultivation and fostered the production of coffee, indigo, cochineal, rice and hemp.” [Disney 2009, p. 288] “Although the government of Maria I maintained broadly similar economic settings to those of Pombal in his later years, it partially phased out reliance on monopolistic trading companies… By then these companies had achieved much of their original purpose, havingstimulated new colonial export industries, such as cotton, rice and coffee, and re-invigorated older ones like sugar, tobacco and hides.” [Disney 2009, p. 314] “The loss of Colombo to the Dutch in 1656 not only deprived the Portuguese of access to spices, especially cinnamon from Ceylon, but placed these resources in Dutch hands. In the seventeenth century, not only the Dutch but also the English had direct access to supplies in Asia and transported spices to Europe. Portugal witnessed a decline in her revenues derived from the spice trade, especially pepper… Keenly conscious of the commercial importance of oriental spices, in 1678 the crown ordered the viceroy in Goa to dispatch plants such as pepper, clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger, from India to regions more securely under Portuguese control, namely Portuguese America and even metropolitan Portugal and the Atlantic islands.” [Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 152-153] “Pombaline economic policy in the 1760s tried to combat this new situation by promoting the production of any colonial commodities, old or new, which seemed to have export potential… One governor who paid good heed to these orders was Luı´s de Almeida, marquis of Lavradio, who was governor of Bahia (1768–9), then viceroy of Brazil (1769–79). Lavradio encouraged expansion of tobacco cultivation and fostered the production of coffee, indigo, cochineal, rice and hemp.” [Disney 2009, p. 288]
Luxury Manufactured Goods: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: |
Portuguese Empire - Early Modern
foreign |
Consumption by Ruler: | Present |
Consumption by Elite: | Present |
Tapestries; wall hangings; furniture; jewellery; watches; military and naval supplies. “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings. In 1726, he purchased a particularly outstanding collection of paintings, mainly by Flemish and Dutch masters. This collection, originally accumulated by Dom Luı´s da Cunha (1662–1749), an urbane and highly-experienced Portuguese diplomat, included works by Rembrandt, Raphael, Titian, Rubens, Anthony van Dyck and Jan Breughel. João also acquired scores of paintings through his regular buyers and agents in France, Italy and elsewhere in Europe. Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” [Disney 2009, p. 271] “Although various elements of Joanine court culture stemmed from Portuguese national tradition, others were clearly derived from the outside, mostly from Italy or France… Elite Portuguese imported from France many of their material needs: personal attire, wigs, jewellery, gold watches, cosmetics and toiletries. French bookshops steadily multiplied in Lisbon, while fashionable preachers imitated the French style of public-speaking. Even traditional Portuguese ceramics were discarded in favour of foreign imports.” [Disney 2009, p. 272] “Overall, some 200 manufacturing businesses were created in Portugal during the 1770s. A few were run directly by the crown, but most were privately owned though often in receipt of state aid. More than half were located in Lisbon and about a quarter in Porto – they were concentrated in areas with the best access to imported raw materials, to the main national markets and to colonial export markets. By the time Pombal left office Portugal was producing quite an impressive range of manufactured goods. This included old perennials such as woollens and silks, but also glass, leather, hats, cottons, refined sugar, tobacco products, cordage, paper, ceramics, soap, military and naval supplies and a myriad of minor items ranging from buttons to combs. Many of these products were made from raw materials produced in the colonies, which also comprised for Portugal a crucial protected market.” [Disney 2009, p. 291] > “The Portuguese were not unappreciative of the skilled craftsmanship of peoples of other religions and nations. Afonso de Albuquerque sent a dagger made by a Goan goldsmith to Dom Manuel. In India, not only did the Portuguese decorate homes, palaces, and even churches with locally made objects but, on their return to Portugal, they often carried articles of Indian workmanship. These included finely carved cabinets, tables, chairs, secretaries and beds, sometimes with inlays of ivory or ebony; tapestries, wall-hangings, bed coverings, and other worked cloth which included embroidered vestments for church dignitaries as well as for secular self-adornment; a wide range of jewellery, ranging from the sacred to the profane, and incorporating precious stones; and, finally, works in lacquer or ceramic.” [Russell-Wood 1998, p. 186] “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings.” [Disney 2009, p. 271] “The Portuguese were not unappreciative of the skilled craftsmanship of peoples of other religions and nations. Afonso de Albuquerque sent a dagger made by a Goan goldsmith to Dom Manuel. In India, not only did the Portuguese decorate homes, palaces, and even churches with locally made objects but, on their return to Portugal, they often carried articles of Indian workmanship. These included finely carved cabinets, tables, chairs, secretaries and beds, sometimes with inlays of ivory or ebony; tapestries, wall-hangings, bed coverings, and other worked cloth which included embroidered vestments for church dignitaries as well as for secular self-adornment; a wide range of jewellery, ranging from the sacred to the profane, and incorporating precious stones; and, finally, works in lacquer or ceramic.” [Russell-Wood 1998, p. 186]
Luxury Glass Goods: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: | Portuguese Empire - Early Modern |
Glassware; crystal; plate glass. “Overall, some 200 manufacturing businesses were created in Portugal during the 1770s. A few were run directly by the crown, but most were privately owned though often in receipt of state aid… The largest single entity was the glass factory, which employed some 550 workers.” [Disney 2009, p. 291] On August 9, 1692, D. Pedro 11 annulled certain provisions of the 1686 pragmatica, thereby acknowledging that Portuguese production of hats, black cloth, glass, and other manufactured items was insufficient to meet demand.” [Hanson 1981, p. 267] “Nevertheless, beginning in 1670, both domestic and foreign artisans and merchants joined their efforts in various industrial projects. Late in that year, Venetian master glaziers contributed their expertise to help two Portuguese entrepreneurs construct a furnace in Lisbon for the production of glassware, crystal, and plate glass.” [Hanson 1981, p. 164]
Luxury Food: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: |
Portuguese Empire - Early Modern
foreign |
Olives; olive oil; orchard fruits; dried fruits; oranges; sugar; rice; tapioca; molasses; sesame; cashew nuts; beans. “Olives and olive oil, cork and cork objects, traditional orchard fruits and dried fruits were all quite buoyant. One relatively new commodity starting to make an impact was the sweet orange (citrus sinensis) from China, now widely grown in the Algarve. While Seville oranges had been produced in southern Portugal for centuries, sweet oranges were introduced much later, most probably in the 1630s. But the new variety spread rapidly and in the eighteenth century was regularly exported to northern Europe, mainly from orchards around Faro and Monchique.” [Disney 2009, p. 258] “In 1751, an English entrepreneur called Henry Smith was allowed to establish a sugar refinery in Lisbon, provided he used only Brazilian raw sugar and trained Portuguese apprentices in the art of refining.” [Disney 2009, p. 290] “Although the government of Maria I maintained broadly similar economic settings to those of Pombal in his later years, it partially phased out reliance on monopolistic trading companies… By then these companies had achieved much of their original purpose, havingstimulated new colonial export industries, such as cotton, rice and coffee, and re-invigorated older ones like sugar, tobacco and hides.” [Disney 2009, p. 314] “By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings: twenty-seven different foodstuffs and beverages, including brandy, sugar, rice, coffee, honey, pork, manioc flour, cocoa, tapioca, molasses, sesame, cashew nuts, cloves, beans, and vegetables...” [Russell-Wood 1998, p. 128]
Luxury Fabrics: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: |
Portuguese Empire - Early Modern
foreign |
Consumption by Ruler: | Present |
Consumption by Elite: | Present |
Silks; textiles; damask. “An insufficiency of gainful employment caused many people to leave Portugal to seek their fortunes in the colonies. Fear of being impressed into service against the Spanish or flight from the ubiquitous Inquisition impelled the departure of many others. The economic decline that set in after 1670 and the post-1690 gold discoveries in Brazil gave further incentive to would-be emigrants… Severim de Faria proposed policies favorable to domestic manufacturing as a solution to unemployment and the depressed rate of population growth. He advocated diversified production of textiles, including luxury fabrics, as an especially effective means of putting people to work.” [Hanson 1981, p. 117] “One exception was Makassar in the Celebes which was used by the Portuguese for a trade which flourished in the first quarter of the seventeenth century, attracting Portuguese vessels from Macao, Malacca, and even the ports of Coromandel, to exchange Chinese silks and Indian textiles…” [Russell-Wood 1998, p. 41] “Despite the termination of a commercial venture that had shown promise, other companies were established after 1699… Other imports included porcelains from Macau, specie, indigo, pepper, calicoes, silks, damasks, and various other fabrics.” [Hanson 1981, p. 214] “An insufficiency of gainful employment caused many people to leave Portugal to seek their fortunes in the colonies. Fear of being impressed into service against the Spanish or flight from the ubiquitous Inquisition impelled the departure of many others. The economic decline that set in after 1670 and the post-1690 gold discoveries in Brazil gave further incentive to would-be emigrants… Severim de Faria proposed policies favorable to domestic manufacturing as a solution to unemployment and the depressed rate of population growth. He advocated diversified production of textiles, including luxury fabrics, as an especially effective means of putting people to work.” [Hanson 1981, p. 117] “Despite the importance of wool, a commodity that was consumed by all classes, the production of silk (garments of which were legallyif not actually restricted to the privileged classes) apparently got prior consideration. Indeed, apparently one of Ericeira's first priorities as superintendent was to develop an alternative supply of luxury fabric for the privileged and thus reduce the outflow of bullion going for foreign silks… Unlike the 1668 pragmatica, the 1677 promulgation was accompanied by a broad program to revive domestic silk production and thereby provide the privileged with an alternative supply of fabrics regarded as emblematic of their elevated status.” [Hanson 1981, p. 166] “Criticism of Ericeira's program was muted during the economically depressed 1680s, but many of the privileged no doubt grumbled about the prohibitions on consumption of foreign luxury items that the pragmaticas of 1668 and 1677 imposed. Furthermore, many nobles, clerics, letrados, and wealthy merchants ignored these laws, continuing to purchase and wear forbidden fabrics and apparel. This is clearly suggested by the fact that in 1686 the crown feh compelled to issue yet another pragmatica against conspicuous consumption. This latest edict, which noted an alarming rise in the consumption of luxury goods, ordered that transgressors, including native tailors who produced costumes in which scarce gold or silver was used as threads and adornments, be fined for the first offense and jailed for the second. The law also imposed greater restrictions in imports, prohibiting the use of "any type of black or colored fabric not manufactured in the realm." 9 Two years later, further dress restrictions were enacted as the crown again attempted to divert consumption to local products.” [Hanson 1981, p. 266]
Luxury Drink/Alcohol: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: |
Portuguese Empire - Early Modern
foreign |
Wine; port; brandy; coffee; cocoa. “As late as the 1680s the market for Portuguese wines in Britain was still quite modest, and imports averaged only about 120 tuns per year. But in 1689, when Britain was about to go to war with France, the British government banned the importation of French wines, so opening up a major opportunity for Portugal. Then in 1697 British import duties on Portuguese wines were lowered, creating a substantial tariff advantage. This advantage was subsequently entrenched by the Methuen commercial treaty of 1703. By then Portuguese wine exports to Britain had surged to 6,600 tuns a year, an enormous increase of some 5,500 per cent in just two decades. Through the early eighteenth century the trade continued to grow. It received another hefty boost when war broke out between Britain and Spain in 1739 – and London promptly terminated Spanish wine imports. The consequence of all this was that Portugal achieved overwhelming dominance in the British wine market. Portuguese wine shipments to Britain eventually peaked in the early 1740s at 13,100 tuns per year.” [Disney 2009, pp. 259-260] “English merchants from the Porto factory, having recognised the area’s strategic value, began to buy up its vintages and to encourage more vine plantings. Growers responded enthusiastically, and an infrastructure for transporting, processing and marketing the wine was established by the factory. Soon the merchants began fortifying the wine with brandy, producing a rich product with a high alcohol content that rapidly found favour with British customers – though it was seldom drunk by the Portuguese. Moreover, this fortified wine could be transported by sea without deteriorating in quality. So by 1715 the pattern of the Anglo-Portuguese wine trade had radically changed. Two-thirds of Portuguese wine exported to Britain now flowed out through Porto, and by the 1720s this had further increased to about three-quarters. Almost overnight, port wine – the wine of the Upper Douro, exported through Porto – had gained the lion’s share of the British market.” [Disney 2009, p. 261] “Although the government of Maria I maintained broadly similar economic settings to those of Pombal in his later years, it partially phased out reliance on monopolistic trading companies… By then these companies had achieved much of their original purpose, havingstimulated new colonial export industries, such as cotton, rice and coffee, and re-invigorated older ones like sugar, tobacco and hides.” [Disney 2009, p. 314] “By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings: twenty-seven different foodstuffs and beverages, including brandy, sugar, rice, coffee, honey, pork, manioc flour, cocoa, tapioca, molasses, sesame, cashew nuts, cloves, beans, and vegetables...” [Russell-Wood 1998, p. 128] “As late as the 1680s the market for Portuguese wines in Britain was still quite modest, and imports averaged only about 120 tuns per year. But in 1689, when Britain was about to go to war with France, the British government banned the importation of French wines, so opening up a major opportunity for Portugal. Then in 1697 British import duties on Portuguese wines were lowered, creating a substantial tariff advantage. This advantage was subsequently entrenched by the Methuen commercial treaty of 1703. By then Portuguese wine exports to Britain had surged to 6,600 tuns a year, an enormous increase of some 5,500 per cent in just two decades. Through the early eighteenth century the trade continued to grow. It received another hefty boost when war broke out between Britain and Spain in 1739 – and London promptly terminated Spanish wine imports. The consequence of all this was that Portugal achieved overwhelming dominance in the British wine market. Portuguese wine shipments to Britain eventually peaked in the early 1740s at 13,100 tuns per year.” [Disney 2009, pp. 259-260]
Luxury Statuary: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: | foreign |
Consumption by Ruler: | Present |
Statues; marble reliefs. “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings… Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” [Disney 2009, p. 271] “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings… Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” [Disney 2009, p. 271] “The crowning moment of the reconstruction project came in 1775, twenty years after the earthquake. Portugal’s first bronze statue was erected in the middle of Praça do Comércio, even though the square was not yet finished.” [Hatton 2018, p. 157] “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings. In 1726, he purchased a particularly outstanding collection of paintings, mainly by Flemish and Dutch masters. This collection, originally accumulated by Dom Luı´s da Cunha (1662–1749), an urbane and highly-experienced Portuguese diplomat, included works by Rembrandt, Raphael, Titian, Rubens, Anthony van Dyck and Jan Breughel. João also acquired scores of paintings through his regular buyers and agents in France, Italy and elsewhere in Europe. Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” [Disney 2009, p. 271]
Luxury Precious Stone: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: | foreign |
Diamond; topaz; emerald; amethyst; coral. “As the gold boom neared its peak at the end of the 1720s news began to reach Lisbon of the sensational discovery in Brazil of rich diamond deposits. At the time Europe’s main source of diamonds was in southern India where Madras, controlled by the English EIC, had now superseded Goa as the principal point of outlet for the gems. The Madras diamond trade was handled by a small group of specialist gem merchants – until the sudden appearance of Brazilian diamonds shattered their hitherto secure and comfortable near-monopoly. Neither the volume nor value of diamonds reaching Europe from Brazil in the first half of the eighteenth century can be established with any certainty. However, John Gore, a well-placed English diamond-dealer who came to play a key role in the Brazilian diamond trade as the Portuguese crown’s expert adviser, claimed some 300,000 carats worth five million cruzados were imported into Lisbon in each of 1732 and 1733. This amounted to four times the value of diamonds imported to Europe at the time from India. Clearly, the Brazilian diamond trade provided another significant new income flow to the Portuguese crown, though a lesser one than that generated by gold. In the course of the eighteenth century the crown’s income from diamonds amounted to probably about 10 per cent of what it gained from gold.” [Disney 2009, pp. 254-255] “By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings:… Into the category of miscellaneous, numbering some forty-four items, would fall topazes, amethysts, gold, silver, and diamonds.” [Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 128-129] “Establishment of the company marked the culmination of various proposals for similar enterprises, not the least of which was the New Christian scheme of 1673. D. Pedro II had himself recommended founding such a company to the viceroy of India in 1685, suggestingthat it be modeled after those of England and Holland. This new firm, the Indian Commercial Company, which was formed for an initial term of twelve years, was granted a monopoly on the sale of cloth, cochineal, coral, emeralds, gold, and silver to Portugal.” [Hanson 1981, p. 212] “As the gold boom neared its peak at the end of the 1720s news began to reach Lisbon of the sensational discovery in Brazil of rich diamond deposits.” [Disney 2009, p. 254] By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings:… Into the category of miscellaneous, numbering some forty-four items, would fall topazes, amethysts, gold, silver, and diamonds.” [Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 128-129]
Luxury Fine Ceramic Wares: | Present |
Place(s) of Provenance: |
Portuguese Empire - Early Modern
foreign |
Consumption by Ruler: | Present |
Consumption by Elite: | Present |
“Although various elements of Joanine court culture stemmed from Portuguese national tradition, others were clearly derived from the outside, mostly from Italy or France… There was therefore not only growing economic dependency on Britain, but significant cultural dependency on the Italians and French, particularly at the elite level. This cultural dependency was apparent in the visual and performing arts and invarious aspects of everyday life… Even traditional Portuguese ceramics were discarded in favour of foreign imports.” [Disney 2009, p. 272] “Although various elements of Joanine court culture stemmed from Portuguese national tradition, others were clearly derived from the outside, mostly from Italy or France… Even traditional Portuguese ceramics were discarded in favour of foreign imports.” [Disney 2009, p. 272] “Although various elements of Joanine court culture stemmed from Portuguese national tradition, others were clearly derived from the outside, mostly from Italy or France… There was therefore not only growing economic dependency on Britain, but significant cultural dependency on the Italians and French, particularly at the elite level. This cultural dependency was apparent in the visual and performing arts and in various aspects of everyday life… Even traditional Portuguese ceramics were discarded in favour of foreign imports.” [Disney 2009, p. 272]