Home Region: Mainland Southeast Asia (Southeast Asia)

Chenla

550 CE 825 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 kh_chenla / KhChenl

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

540 CE 640 CE Funan II (kh_funan_2) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

802 CE 1100 CE Early Angkor (kh_angkor_1) [continuity]

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General Description

According to Chinese records, Chenla (also known as Zhenla) ^[1] was the polity that ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia after the decline of Funan. ^[2] As with Funan, this was likely not a unitary state, but rather a cluster of competing small city-states. ^[3] These states occupied much of modern Cambodia and northwestern Thailand, with sites all across the Mekong River Basin, and particularly dense clusters just before the river’s delta, in the Tonlé Sap region, and in the Upper Mun Valley. ^[3] With respect to Chenla’s chronological boundaries, many authors date its beginning to the mid-6th century, ^[3] that is, at the beginning of Funan’s century-long decline. ^[4] This is the chronology we follow, although it is worth noting that, according to the Chinese records, Chenla only conquered Funan in the 7th century. ^[5] The Chenla era came to a close at the turn of the the 9th century with the beginning of the Angkor period, traditionally dated from Jayavarman II’s coronation ceremony in 802 CE. ^[6]
Population and political organization
Although Chenla was probably a cluster of competing centres rather than a unitary polity, inscriptions suggest that there was an overall political hierarchy, at the top of which sat a vrah kamraten, that is, most likely, a deified ruler ^[3] Below this ruler, there was a series of elite ranks whose relationship to each other is not always clear, though no rank was higher than that of pura. ^[7] At the local level, poñ (settlement chiefs) exercised their authority over individual temples, which were important economic as well as ritual centres for their sustaining populace. ^[8]
No overall population estimates could be found in the literature, but the largest settlement probably housed over 20,000 families, ^[9] and Chinese records describe Chenla as ’a wealthy and militarily powerful country with over 30 cities’. ^[10]

[1]: (Miksic 2007, 426) John N. Miksic. 2007. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.

[2]: (Southworth 2004, 324) William A. Southworth. 2004. ’Chenla’, in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, edited by Keat Gin Ooi, 324-26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

[3]: (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. ’From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State’. Antiquity 88: 822-35.

[4]: (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

[5]: (Miksic 2007, 426-27) John N. Miksic. 2007. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.

[6]: (Higham 2014, 254) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books.

[7]: (Vickery 1998, 24) Michael Vickery. 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies.

[8]: (Higham 2014, 831-32) Charles Higham. 2014. ’From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State’. Antiquity 88: 822-35.

[9]: (Higham 2014, 293) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books.

[10]: (Coe 2003, 60) Michael Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

2 Capital

4 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

2 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion Family

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables

Religious Demography

1 Theological Syncretism of Different Religions

1 Syncretism of Religious Practices at the Level of Individual Believers

5 Widespread Religion

1 Official Religion

1 Elites Religion

Religious Tolerance

1 Taxes Based on Religious Adherence or on Religious Activities and Institutions

1 Frequency of Societal Violence Against Religious Groups

1 Societal Discrimination Against Religious Groups Taking up Certain Occupations or Functions

1 Frequency of Governmental Violence Against Religious Groups

1 Government Restrictions on Religious Education

1 Government Restrictions on Public Worship

1 Government Restrictions on Public Proselytizing

1 Government Restrictions on Property Ownership for Adherents of Any Religious Group

1 Government Restrictions on Conversion

1 Government Restrictions on Construction of Religious Buildings

1 Government Restrictions on Circulation of Religious Literature

1 Societal Pressure to Convert or Against Conversion

1 Government Pressure to Convert

1 Governmental Obligations for Religious Groups to Apply for Official Recognition

1 Government Discrimination Against Religious Groups Taking up Certain Occupations or Functions

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Chenla (kh_chenla) was in:
(640 CE 801 CE)	Cambodian Basin

Home NGA: Cambodian Basin

General Variables

Identity and Location Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	48 P	550 CE 825 CE
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Original Name	Chenla	550 CE 825 CE
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Capital	Sambhupura	550 CE 825 CE
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Capital	Isanapura	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternative Name	Zhenla	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternative Name	Zhen-la	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternative Name	Lin-yi	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternative Name	Chenla Principalities	550 CE 825 CE
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Temporal Bounds Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	650 CE
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Duration	[550 CE ➜ 825 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	none	550 CE 825 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Indianized Southeast Asia	550 CE 825 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Early Angkor	550 CE 825 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	2,175,000 km²	550 CE 825 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	550 CE 825 CE
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Succeeding Entity 802 CE 1100 CE	Early Angkor (kh_angkor_1) [continuity]
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Preceding Entity 540 CE 640 CE	Funan II (kh_funan_2) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	confederated state	550 CE 825 CE
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Language Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Austro-Asiatic	550 CE 825 CE
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Linguistic Family	Mon-Khmer	550 CE 825 CE
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Language	Old Khmer	550 CE 825 CE
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Language	Sanskrit	550 CE 825 CE
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Religion Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Hinduism	550 CE 825 CE
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Religion Family	Saivist	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternate Religion Genus	Buddhism	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternate Religion Family	Mahayana	550 CE 825 CE
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Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	550 CE 825 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	60,000 people	550 CE 825 CE
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Polity Territory	531,000 km²	550 CE 825 CE
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Polity Population	- Undecided	550 CE 825 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[3 to 4]	550 CE 825 CE
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Religious Level	4	550 CE 825 CE
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Military Level	4	550 CE 825 CE
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Administrative Level	4	550 CE 825 CE
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Professions Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Merit Promotion	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Law Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Judge	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Court	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Port	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Canal	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Information / Writing System Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Script	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Philosophy	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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History	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Fiction	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Calendar	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Information / Money Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Precious Metal	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Article	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Information / Postal System Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Courier	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Information / Measurement System Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Moat	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Fortified Camp	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Ditch	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Complex Fortification	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Military use of Metals Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Iron	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Copper	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Bronze	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Projectiles Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Sling	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Self Bow	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Javelin	Unknown	550 CE 825 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Composite Bow	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Handheld weapons Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Sword	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Spear	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Polearm	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Dagger	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Battle Axe	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Animals used in warfare Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Elephant	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Camel	Absent	550 CE 825 CE
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Armor Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Shield	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Scaled Armor	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Plate Armor	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Limb Protection	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Leather Cloth	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Laminar Armor	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Helmet	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Chainmail	Unknown Suspected	550 CE 825 CE
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Breastplate	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Naval technology Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Religious Demography Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Theological Syncretism of Different Religions	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Syncretism of Religious Practices at the Level of Individual Believers	Present	550 CE 825 CE
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Widespread Religion	1. Most widespread: Indigenous Cambodian Religion	550 CE 825 CE
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Widespread Religion	2. Second most widespread: Saivist Hinduism (Sizeable minority)	550 CE 825 CE
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Widespread Religion	3. Third most widespread: Vaisnavist Hinduism (Sizeable minority)	550 CE 825 CE
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Widespread Religion	4. Fourth most widespread: Mahayana Buddhism (Sizeable minority)	550 CE 825 CE
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Widespread Religion	Other: Theraväda Buddhism (Sizeable minority)	550 CE 825 CE
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Official Religion	Saivist Hinduism	550 CE 825 CE
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Elites Religion	Saivist Hinduism	550 CE 825 CE
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Human Sacrifice Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Religious Tolerance Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Taxes Based on Religious Adherence or on Religious Activities and Institutions	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Frequency of Societal Violence Against Religious Groups	very rarely Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Societal Discrimination Against Religious Groups Taking up Certain Occupations or Functions	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Frequency of Governmental Violence Against Religious Groups	very rarely Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Religious Education	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Public Worship	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Public Proselytizing	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Property Ownership for Adherents of Any Religious Group	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Conversion	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Construction of Religious Buildings	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Restrictions on Circulation of Religious Literature	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Societal Pressure to Convert or Against Conversion	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Pressure to Convert	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Governmental Obligations for Religious Groups to Apply for Official Recognition	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Government Discrimination Against Religious Groups Taking up Certain Occupations or Functions	Absent Inferred	550 CE 825 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Chenla (kh_chenla)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More