The Aussa Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Aussa during the first half of the eighteenth century. The Aussa Sultanate was established by the Mudaito Dynasty of the Asaimara (Redhouse) branch of the Danakil clan. According to Abir, the Sultanate’s peak phase was during the eighteenth century with a decline in the first year of the nineteenth century. Tensions between local raiding groups also put a strain on the Sultanate sometime in the early-nineteenth century when the Adoimara (Whitehouse) Danakil forced the Mudaito Sultan to share revenues with their clan.
[1]
The Sultanate of Aussa also fought off foreign invasions in the nineteenth century, particularly against the Egyptian invading army in 1875 when the Sultan of Aussa killed Werner Munzinger in battle. During the mid-nineteenth century, the Sultanate of Aussa was forced to make pacts with the Italian colonists as Italy expanded its territory in the Horn of Africa. These agreements with Italy and the Sultanate of Aussa brought mistrust as the Ethiopian government was suspicious of the sultanate especially during the First Italo-Ethiopian War.
In 1935/36 during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Sultan of Ausa, Mahammad Yayyo agreed to cooperate with the Italian invaders. After World War II the Sultanate still controlled a moderate amount of influence in the Awash Valley of the Afar region. To this day there is a Sultan of Aussa.
[2]
[1]: (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library
[2]: (Mekonnen 2013, 48) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection
| Year Range | Early Sultanate of Aussa (et_aussa_sultanate) was in: |
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Mordechai Abir gives an unspecified start and end of peak dates. “In the 18th century, the Sultanate of Aussa, dominated by the Mudaito Asaimara and having a Mudaito Sultan, was the strongest and most important Afar political unit. However, it seems that by the end of the 18th century the Aussa Sultanate was past its peak, and the Adoimara Afar started to encroach on Aussa Territory.” [1]
[1]: (Abir 1966, 6) Abir, M. 1966. “Salt, Trade and Politics in Ethiopia in the ‘Zämänä Mäsafent”. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol 4:2. Pp 1-10. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7U3R35T/library
Two end dates are given to this polity. The first date of 1895 is when the Sultanate came under nominal Ethiopian rule, and the second date of 1936 is when the Sultanate came under nominal Italian rule. An expert should be consulted to confirm whether either date marks enough of a turning point in the regions history to warrant choosing it as the end date for this phase of the polity’s history. “Farther north, the imamate of Awsa passed by the middle of the seventeenth century into the hands of immigrant Sharifs of the Ba-Alawu family of the Hadhramaut. This dynasty, however was unable to protect Awsa from Galla and Dankali raids. Finally, in the first decades of the eighteenth century, Awsa was overrun by the Mudaito tribe of the Asaimara branch of the Danakil, who formed a new Mudaito dynasty of Awsa.” [1] “The Aussa Sultanate or Afar Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Aussa […] The sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafu in 1734.” [2] "As a result, Menilik’s army invaded the sultanate of Aussa in 1895 and made the Sultan tribute paying to the central government. But even then, the central government did not actively involve in the internal affairs of the Sultanate of Aussa. On the other hand, some writers claimed that the Emperor used the Italian issue as a pretext to occupy Aussa land.” [3] “During the Second Italian-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), Sultan Mahammad Yayyo again agreed to cooperate with the Italian invaders.” [2] Marcus that Italy declared itself the new ruler of Ethiopia in 1936."[O]n 9 May, Mussolini proclaimed the Ethiopian Italian Empire before an enthusiastic throng in Tome. On 11 June, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani was named viceroy of Ethiopia[...]. The victory, however, remained incomplete; [...] With the main units gone and many of the top officers dead, the war against the Italians transformed itself into an insurgency with a changing cast of characters and fighters, depending on circumstance and opportunity. The Italians had strategic control, dominating the cities, towns, and major caravan routes. However, from rural Ethiopia, wherever nationalism had been nurtured, came the arbeynotch, or patriots, to harry Italian outposts and patrols and sometimes to test the strength of garrisons in the larger towns. Never in the quinquennium of rule did the fascists feel secure in Ethiopia, and their anxiety came to border on neurosis." [4]
[1]: (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library
[2]: (Mekonnen 2013, 47) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection
[3]: (Hassen 2010, 18) Hassen, Mohammed. 2010. ‘Indigenous Governance among the Southern Afar (ca. 1815- 1974), Ethiopia’. Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol. 7:2. Pp 1-25. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9ERK5FI7/collection
[4]: (Marcus 2002, 147-148) Marcus, Harold. 2002. A History of Ethiopia. Oakland: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TRKKZJ3T/collection
“During the Second Italian-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), Sultan Mahammad Yayyo again agreed to cooperate with the Italian invaders.” [1]
[1]: (Mekonnen 2013, 47) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection
“Farther north, the imamate of Awsa passed by the middle of the seventeenth century into the hands of immigrant Sharifs of the Ba-Alawu family of the Hadhramaut. This dynasty, however was unable to protect Awsa from Galla and Dankali raids. Finally, in the first decades of the eighteenth century, Awsa was overrun by the Mudaito tribe of the Asaimara branch of the Danakil, who formed a new Mudaito dynasty of Awsa.” [1]
[1]: (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library
(Relationship): “Farther north, the imamate of Awsa passed by the middle of the seventeenth century into the hands of immigrant Sharifs of the Ba-Alawu family of the Hadhramaut. This dynasty, however was unable to protect Awsa from Galla and Dankali raids. Finally, in the first decades of the eighteenth century, Awsa was overrun by the Mudaito tribe of the Asaimara branch of the Danakil, who formed a new Mudaito dynasty of Awsa.”
[1]
(Entity): “The Aussa Sultanate or Afar Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Aussa […] The sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafu in 1734.”
[2]
[1]: (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library
[2]: (Mekonnen 2013, 47) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection
“The Afars are a Cushitic-speaking people who call their language Cafaraf. It is classified along with Somali and Afan Oromo with the lowland east Cushitic language.” [1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 26-27) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection
“Most, if not all, of them are now Moslems, although the neighbouring Itu are generally pagan.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 2) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
The below quote suggests the presence of markets as there was a vast caravan trade into the interior of Ethiopia. “The caravan trade followed two main routes: from Massawa through Adowa, Gondar and Gojjam and from Tajura and Zeila through Awsa or Harar and then Shoa.” [1]
[1]: (Rubenson 2008, 83) Rubenson, Sven. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c.1790 – c.1870. Edited by John E. Flint. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Sven/titleCreatorYear/items/VRU64Q8P/item-list
Mosques. “Five hundred years later, when visited by Richard Burton, Zeila was much smaller, containing only a dozen stone houses and approximately 200 thatched ones, alongside six mosques and a saint’s tomb, the whole surrounded by a coral and rubble wall with five gates. It was still a centre of caravan trade to the interior as well as functioning as the port for the sultanate of Aussa, Harar and the whole of southern Ethiopia.” [1]
[1]: (Insoll 2003, 59-61) Insoll, Timothy. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/KXWC265V/collection
E.g. Markets. The below quote suggests the presence of markets as there was a vast caravan trade into the interior of Ethiopia. “The caravan trade followed two main routes: from Massawa through Adowa, Gondar and Gojjam and from Tajura and Zeila through Awsa or Harar and then Shoa.” [1]
[1]: (Rubenson 2008, 83) Rubenson, Sven. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c.1790 – c.1870. Edited by John E. Flint. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Sven/titleCreatorYear/items/VRU64Q8P/item-list
“The main road runs along its western side and I later heard that on this road were bridges constructed in ancient times by the Arabs, which I should much like to have inspected.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 16) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
“Five hundred years later, when visited by Richard Burton, Zeila was much smaller, containing only a dozen stone houses and approximately 200 thatched ones, alongside six mosques and a saint’s tomb, the whole surrounded by a coral and rubble wall with five gates. It was still a centre of caravan trade to the interior as well as functioning as the port for the sultanate of Aussa, Harar and the whole of southern Ethiopia.” [1]
[1]: (Insoll 2003, 59-61) Insoll, Timothy. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/KXWC265V/collection
“The main road runs along its western side and I later heard that on this road were bridges constructed in ancient times by the Arabs, which I should much like to have inspected.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 16) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
The below quote suggests the presence of trading emporia as there was a vast caravan trade into the interior of Ethiopia. “The caravan trade followed two main routes: from Massawa through Adowa, Gondar and Gojjam and from Tajura and Zeila through Awsa or Harar and then Shoa.” [1]
[1]: (Rubenson 2008, 83) Rubenson, Sven. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c.1790 – c.1870. Edited by John E. Flint. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Sven/titleCreatorYear/items/VRU64Q8P/item-list
E.g. ceremonial site; burial site. “The family of a dead man dig a circular hole close the Kabare round which they gather to pray, afterwards decorating the grave with branches or palm fronds.” [1] “Otherwise the dead are buried in Moslem fashion in graves known as Kabare, which fulfil the functions of both the dico and the das. The Kabare, like the das, is generally situated close to a main track. The grave is enclosed by a low circular wall, with a doorway generally flanked by two pillars.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 10) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
“The family of a dead man dig a circular hole close the Kabare round which they gather to pray, afterwards decorating the grave with branches or palm fronds.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 10) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
“Otherwise the dead are buried in Moslem fashion in graves known as Kabare, which fulfil the functions of both the dico and the das. The Kabare, like the das, is generally situated close to a main track. The grave is enclosed by a low circular wall, with a doorway generally flanked by two pillars.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 10) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
The Quran. “Most, if not all, of them are now Moslems, although the neighbouring Itu are generally pagan.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 2) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
The quote below suggest that religious literature was likely present. “Most, if not all, of them are now Moslems, although the neighbouring Itu are generally pagan.” [1]
[1]: (Thesiger 1935, 2) Thesiger, Wifred. 1935. ‘The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate.’ The Geographical Journal. Vol. 85:1. Pp 1-19 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APBB7BBK/library
“The twelve months of the Islamic calendar in order, are as follows: (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rabi’al-Awwal; (4) Rabi’al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada’l-Ula; (6) Jumada’l-Akhira; (7) Rajab; (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’l-Qa’da; and (12) Dhu’l-Hijja. For administrative and agricultural reasons, medieval Muslims also used derivations of existing solar and/or fixed-month calendars from the region;” [1]
[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Josef W. Meri Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K Index. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8BDKDQRX/library
“The Maria Theresa dollar, known as the thaler in Austria, was first minted in Vienna in 1751 and named after the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa. It was 80 percent pure silver. In the late 18th century, Arab traders probably introduced the Maria Theresa thaler to Ethiopia and, by the mid-19th century it had become the most widely acceptable form of currency. Before 1935, the coinage of Menelik II and Halie Selassie failed to dislodge the thaler. During the Italian-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), there were some 50 million thalers in circulation. [1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 110) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection
The following quote suggests that bartering with articles was a common practice within Ethiopia. “Articles of clothing, food, agricultural implements, decorative ornaments, cotton cloth, small iron bars, cartridges, and bars of salt or amole, as it was called, replaced coins for many years.” [1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 109) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection
The quote below discusses the general systems of measurement in Ethiopia, suggesting that the weight measurements were likely present in the Sultanate of Aussa. “Three basic types of weight concepts may be discerned: firstly, vague ideas of heaviness or lightness obtained merely by lifting objects in the hand, or even by estimating their weight by sight; secondly, basic, but relatively crude concepts such as the porter, donkey, mule and camel-load, which, by reason of their simplicity, may be compared with fundamental measurements in other fields like the length of the human arm, the area ploughed by an ox in a day or the amount held in the hand; and, thirdly, more accurate measurements based on the use of some kind of scales, steelyard or other weighing apparatus.” [1]
[1]: (Pankhurst 1970, 45) Pankhurst, Richard. ‘A Preliminary History of Ethiopian Measures, Weight and Values, Part III’. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol. 8:1. Pp 45-85 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FZPKE83Z/collection
The quote below discusses the general systems of measurement in Ethiopia, suggesting that the volume measurements were likely present in the Sultanate of Aussa. “Volume was sometimes expressed by means of similes rather than by employing units of capacity. This was done by likening an amount of the article to be measured to a) various parts of the human body, b) well known objects, such as grains of corn, beans, lemons and the like, or c) by using other descriptive concepts.” [1]
[1]: (Pankhurst 1969, 161) Pankhurst, Richard. ‘A Preliminary History of Ethiopian Measures, Weight and Values, Part II’. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol. 7:2. Pp 99-164. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MZQWWA6Z/collection
Islamic calendar. “The twelve months of the Islamic calendar in order, are as follows: (1) Muharram; (2) Safar; (3) Rabi’al-Awwal; (4) Rabi’al-Akhir (or al-Thani); (5) Jumada’l-Ula; (6) Jumada’l-Akhira; (7) Rajab; (8) Sha’ban; (9) Ramadan; (10) Shawwal; (11) Dhu’l-Qa’da; and (12) Dhu’l-Hijja. For administrative and agricultural reasons, medieval Muslims also used derivations of existing solar and/or fixed-month calendars from the region;” [1]
[1]: (Hanne 2006, 196) Hanne, Eric. 2006. ‘Dates and Calendars’ In Josef W. Meri Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K Index. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8BDKDQRX/library
The quote below discusses the general systems of measurement in Ethiopia, suggesting that the length measurements were likely present in the Sultanate of Aussa. “Three basic types of weight concepts may be discerned: firstly, vague ideas of heaviness or lightness obtained merely by lifting objects in the hand, or even by estimating their weight by sight; secondly, basic, but relatively crude concepts such as the porter, donkey, mule and camel-load, which, by reason of their simplicity, may be compared with fundamental measurements in other fields like the length of the human arm, the area ploughed by an ox in a day or the amount held in the hand; and, thirdly, more accurate measurements based on the use of some kind of scales, steelyard or other weighing apparatus.” [1]
[1]: (Pankhurst 1970, 45) Pankhurst, Richard. ‘A Preliminary History of Ethiopian Measures, Weight and Values, Part III’. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol. 8:1. Pp 45-85 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FZPKE83Z/collection
The quote below discusses the general systems of measurement in Ethiopia, suggesting that the area measurements were likely present in the Sultanate of Aussa. “Three basic types of weight concepts may be discerned: firstly, vague ideas of heaviness or lightness obtained merely by lifting objects in the hand, or even by estimating their weight by sight; secondly, basic, but relatively crude concepts such as the porter, donkey, mule and camel-load, which, by reason of their simplicity, may be compared with fundamental measurements in other fields like the length of the human arm, the area ploughed by an ox in a day or the amount held in the hand; and, thirdly, more accurate measurements based on the use of some kind of scales, steelyard or other weighing apparatus.” [1]
[1]: (Pankhurst 1970, 45) Pankhurst, Richard. ‘A Preliminary History of Ethiopian Measures, Weight and Values, Part III’. Journal of Ethiopian Studies. Vol. 8:1. Pp 45-85 Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FZPKE83Z/collection