Home Region:  Iran (Southwest Asia)

Qajar

1794 CE 1925 CE

D G SC WF EC HS CC PT EQ 2020  ir_qajar_dyn / IrQajar

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Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
[elite migration; Zandiyeh] [elite replacement]   Update here

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.

The Qajar Dynasty was in place in Iran from 1794-1925 CE following a 50-year struggle between Qajar tribal leaders for the throne from 1747. Eventually Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) was crowned in 1796 and founded this dynasty. [1]
By 1900 CE this polity had assumed what is now modern Iranian borders, and the territory had decreased from approximately 2 million km2 in 1800 to 1.6million km2 in 1900. The population however had increased from approximately 6 million to 10 million people by 1900 [2] , with the largest settlement, Tehran, holding about 210,000 inhabitants.Settlement hierarchies were similar to previous polities, and included the capital city, other large regional cities, towns and villages. Although there was some centralisation of power, communication and bureaucratic reach was limited, and the Shah relied on the cooperation of many groups to keep administration running and by 1903 there was a movement calling for political reform. [3] [4]
In 1851 the first institution of higher education, the polytechnic institute Dar ul-Funun which offered studies in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences, was founded by Prime Minister Amir Kabir. [5]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[2]: (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.

[3]: (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.

[4]: (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[5]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.

General Variables
Social Complexity Variables
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Qajar (ir_qajar_dyn) was in:
 (1794 CE 1925 CE)   Susiana
Home NGA: Susiana

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
39 S
[1794, 1925]

Original Name:
Qajar Dynasty
[1794, 1925]

Capital:
Tehran
[1794, 1925]

Tehran became the capital in 1786 CE. [1]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 506) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
1900 CE
 

Once civil and government reforms had begun but before the civil disorder?
Tehran: "A recent study has supplied more reliable numbers: 106,482 in 1883; 160,000 in 1891; 210,000 in 1922; and 310,000 in 1932." [1]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 511) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Duration:
[1794 CE ➜ 1925 CE]
 

"The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from the end of the eighteenth century to the twentieth century." [1]
"When Nader Shah Afshar died in 1747 with no living heirs, the Qajar tribal leaders were among the contenders for the throne. From the ensuing 50 year struggle one Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) emerged the undisputed rule in 1794. He was crowned in 1796 and founded the dynasty." [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Political and Cultural Relations
Relationship to Preceding Entity:
elite migration
[1794, 1925]

"From a Turkic tribe in north-east Iran, the great body of them had settled at Astarabad (present day Gorgan) near the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea. When Nader Shah Afshar died in 1747 with no living heirs, the Qajar tribal leaders were among the contenders for the throne." [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Preceding Entity:
elite migration; Zandiyeh [elite replacement]    Update here
 

"From a Turkic tribe in north-east Iran, the great body of them had settled at Astarabad (present day Gorgan) near the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea. When Nader Shah Afshar died in 1747 with no living heirs, the Qajar tribal leaders were among the contenders for the throne." [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Degree of Centralization:
unitary state
[1794, 1925]

Language
Linguistic Family:
NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI
[1794, 1925]

Language:
Persian
[1794, 1925]

Religion

Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
[70,000 to 110,000] people
1850 CE

Inhabitants.
Tehran in 1796 CE probably had a population under 15,000, and included 3,000 soldiers - so probably not the largest city at this time. [1]
By 1808 CE Tehran’s wintertime population reached 50,000. [2]
In 1861 CE Tehran’s population was 80,000 in summer and 120,000 in winter. [3]
Tehran: "A recent study has supplied more reliable numbers: 106,482 in 1883; 160,000 in 1891; 210,000 in 1922; and 310,000 in 1932." [4]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 507) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[2]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[3]: (Bosworth ed.? 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[4]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 511) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

Population of the Largest Settlement:
[160,000 to 210,000] people
1900 CE

Inhabitants.
Tehran in 1796 CE probably had a population under 15,000, and included 3,000 soldiers - so probably not the largest city at this time. [1]
By 1808 CE Tehran’s wintertime population reached 50,000. [2]
In 1861 CE Tehran’s population was 80,000 in summer and 120,000 in winter. [3]
Tehran: "A recent study has supplied more reliable numbers: 106,482 in 1883; 160,000 in 1891; 210,000 in 1922; and 310,000 in 1932." [4]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 507) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[2]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[3]: (Bosworth ed.? 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.

[4]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 511) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Polity Territory:
2,000,000 km2
1800 CE

in squared kilometers
By 1900 CE polity had assumed modern Iranian borders i.e. about 1,600,000 km2. I’d estimate using an area calculator that the polity had lost about 137,979 km2 on its north western border and 201,813 km2 on its north eastern border since 1800 CE.

Polity Territory:
1,600,000 km2
1900 CE

in squared kilometers
By 1900 CE polity had assumed modern Iranian borders i.e. about 1,600,000 km2. I’d estimate using an area calculator that the polity had lost about 137,979 km2 on its north western border and 201,813 km2 on its north eastern border since 1800 CE.


Polity Population:
[6,000,000 to 10,000,000] people
1800 CE 1900 CE

People.
The population of Iran was between six and ten million during the nineteenth century. It was composed mainly of peasants, but between a quarter and a third of the people were tribal, and roughly 10-20 per cent lived in cities." [1]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
5
[1794, 1925]

levels.
1. Capital
2. Other large cities3. Towns4. Villages5.


Military Level:
4
[1794, 1925]

levels.
1. Shah
2.3.
2. Local governor
3.4.
"Iran had not had a national military force since the days of Naser al Din Shah. In 1878, on his second trip abroad, Naser al Din Shah had seen a parade by Cossack soldiers in Russia. Greatly impressed, he asked the Czar whether a similar force could be established in Iran. in 1879 under a 40-year agreement the Russians established a Cossack Brigaded manned by Iranians and commanded by Russian officiers. The brigade thereafter was always a tool of Russian imperialist designs and Persian autocracy, serving primarily as a bodyguard for the Shah." [1]
Another attribute of the local governors was that they had their own militia, with which they were supposed to crush opposition and lawlessness in the provinces. ... the shah had only a small military force, as little as a few thousand ... this force was also irregularly clothed, paid and armed." [2]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 15) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[2]: (Martin 2005, 14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Administrative Level:
4
[1794, 1925]

levels.
1. Shah
_Central government_
2. First Minister
_Town/City government_
2. Kalantar (mayor)3. Darugha (police official)4.
3. Headman of city quarter
2. Provincial Governor
"In a country where communications were weak, and bureaucracy minimal, power was also devolved, and the shah depended on the cooperation of many tribal, ethnic, religious, local, bureaucratic and commercial figures and groups. In particular, power was devolved to the provincial governors, appointed from outside the province but usually with some local connections and knowledge. More often than not, as the century progressed, the governors were also members of the Qajar ruling family. Like the shah their preoccupation was with law and order, in addition to which they raised taxes, both for the centre and for local needs. ... Another attribute of the local governors was that they had their own militia, with which they were supposed to crush opposition and lawlessness in the provinces. ... the shah had only a small military force, as little as a few thousand ... this force was also irregularly clothed, paid and armed." [1]
"the Shahs of Iran were able to get away with arbitrary power over life and death because there was no well-defined aristocracy in Iran comparable in composition and function to that of Europe. This lack of hereditary aristocracy allowed for no other power bases, vesting totally unrestrained power in the Shah. The land-owning elite often changed when the king changed. The property of no-one was secure and could be taken away at the Shah’s pleasure. Ministers and government officials were the personal servants of the Shah, the populace his serfs." [2]
The government had a First Minister. [3]
"By 1903 there was a full-grown movement asking for political reform. What had started in Europe with the French Revolution ... had finally come to the East. In 1905 the Czar had been forced to grant sweeping concessions and a Consultative Assembly had been established. .... By late 1904 the demand for a House of Justice had grown to a demand for a proper parliament modeled on the British House of Commons. In 1906 there were mass demonstrations. The Shah, who up to then had resorted to repressive measures, had to give in. On his birthday, 5 August 1906, he granted a form of constitution and permitted the convention of a constituent assembly which promptly met to draft an electoral law. In October 1906 the assembly had drafted and passed a constitution which was ratified by the Shah. The supplement, i.e. an Iranian version of a Bill of Rights, was enacted later in October 1907." [4]
Gendamerie created in 1911 CE. Organized by Swedish government. 200 officers and 7000 men by 1914 CE. [5]
"Each town or city had a mayor (kalantar) who was a local man of standing selected by the state in a process of consultation with leading members of the community, whose acquiescence was vital if he was to succeed in his duties." [6]
The city/town mayor (kalantar) "also supervised the management of the city quarters under local headmen (kadkhudas) whom he appointed. One of this principal duties was the allocation of taxes amongst city quarters". [6]
The city/town mayor (kalantar) was responsible for law enforcement through his police official (darugha). [6]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.

[2]: (Ghani 2000, 4) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[3]: (Ghani 2000, 3) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[4]: (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[5]: (Ghani 2000, 15) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[6]: (Martin 2005, 17) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Professions
Professional Soldier:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Paid soldiers. [1]
"Iran had not had a national military force since the days of Naser al Din Shah. In 1878, on his second trip abroad, Naser al Din Shah had seen a parade by Cossack soldiers in Russia. Greatly impressed, he asked the Czar whether a similar force could be established in Iran. in 1879 under a 40-year agreement the Russians established a Cossack Brigaded manned by Iranians and commanded by Russian officiers. The brigade thereafter was always a tool of Russian imperialist designs and Persian autocracy, serving primarily as a bodyguard for the Shah." [2]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 13) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.

[2]: (Ghani 2000, 15) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Professional Priesthood:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Clergy. [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 8) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Professional Military Officer:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Aqa Mohammad Khan was assassinated by one of his military commanders in 1797". [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 2) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Merit Promotion:
Absent
[1794, 1925]

Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[1794, 1925]

The government had a First Minister. [1] "Amir Kabir was probably the ablest Iranian public servant of the nineteenth century." [1]

[1]: (Ghani 2000, 3) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.


Examination System:
Absent
[1794, 1925]

Law
Professional Lawyer:
Absent
[1794, 1925]

"When discussing Iranian legal education, one should bear in mind that teaching law in so-called ’secular’ schools has not been in place for very long. In the post-Islamic period, traditional religious schools, or madrasa, were the main institutions to teach Sharia, or Islamic law. During the Safavids dynasty (1500-1722), many Islamic schools were funded to teach religious law as a higher education discipline. Schools had their own campuses with libraries and student residences. The Advanced Law School ... was established in 1919." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Judge:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Qadi.


Formal Legal Code:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Sharia law.


Court:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Market:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"The commercial centre, the bazaar, provided facilities for financial exchange and for the storage in caravanserais of trading commodites, as well as quarters for the storage in caravanserais of trading commodities, as well as quarters for the handicraft industries carried out by the guilds." [1]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Food Storage Site:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"As Abrahamian has observed, the bazaar was the granary, workshop, market-place, bank and religious and educational nucleus of society. .. It consisted of a unified, self-contained complex of shops, passageways and caravanserais interspersed with squares, religious buildings and bathhouses and other public institutions." [1]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 16) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Drinking Water Supply System:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"in the 19th century Shamiran also provided Tehran’s water supply (and supplies much of it today), by means of subterranean channels (qanats, kariz)." [1]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 503) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Transport Infrastructure
Road:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Few passable roadways (suggesting there were some). [1] In Tehran: "the initiatives taken under the Qajar government in respect of urbanisation, traffic management and public hygiene, laid the foundations of an urban infrastructure worthy of a modern city." [2]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.

[2]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 511) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Bridge:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Few passable roadways (suggesting there were some). [1]

[1]: (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Written Record:
Present
[1794, 1925]

inferred continuity with earlier and later periods


Script:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Scientific Literature:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran’s first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Sacred Text:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Quran.


Religious Literature:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"During the Safavids dynasty (1500-1722), many Islamic schools were funded to teach religious law as a higher education discipline. Schools had their own campuses with libraries and student residences. The Advanced Law School ... was established in 1919." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Practical Literature:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran’s first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Philosophy:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran’s first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Lists Tables and Classification:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran’s first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


History:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"In 1851, the first modern institution of higher education was founded. Dar ul-Funun, a polytechic institute, was founded by Amir Kabir, the Prime Minister from 1848 to 1851, better known as Iran’s first reformer, to educate students in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences." [1]

[1]: (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.


Fiction:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Poets. Literature flourished mostly in cities other than Tehran. [1]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 514) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Calendar:
Present
[1794, 1925]

inferred continuity with earlier and later periods


Information / Money
Indigenous Coin:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Present. [1]

[1]: (Martin 2005) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.


Information / Postal System
Postal Station:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

General Postal Service:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"By way of comparison, the average speed achieved by the postal system in Qajar Iran was 120-60 kilometres a day". [1]

[1]: (Silverstein 2010, 66) Adam J Silverstein. Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.


Courier:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Wooden Palisade:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Stone Walls Non Mortared:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Stone Walls Mortared:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"With Tehran established as the capital in 1786, the urban fabric was further developed by the expansion of the bazaar ..., palaces, and military fortifications.” [1] Tehran: "In addition to the construction of palaces which served both as royal residences and administrative centres, bazaars and thoroughfares all within a ring of defensive walls, it was also necessary to cater for religious needs and to demonstrate, publicly, piety and charity through sponsorship of mosques and madrasas, and repairs and additions to important Shi’i sanctuaries." [2] In the early 19th century Tehran was surrounded by a wall and ditch. [3]

[1]: (Gharipour 2012, 133) Mohammad Gharipour. Architecture. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Sage. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Los Angeles.

[2]: (Scarce 2005, 432) Jennifer Scarce. Some interpretations of religious and popular culture in Qajar tilework. Robert Gleave. ed. 2005. Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. RoutledgeCurzon. London.

[3]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Settlements in a Defensive Position:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

"With Tehran established as the capital in 1786, the urban fabric was further developed by the expansion of the bazaar ..., palaces, and military fortifications.” [1]

[1]: (Gharipour 2012, 133) Mohammad Gharipour. Architecture. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Sage. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Los Angeles.


Modern Fortification:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"After arriving in Tabriz, the French began drilling Abbas Mirza’s battalions and erecting modern fortifications." [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 67) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Moat:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Fortified Camp:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Earth Rampart:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Ditch:
Present
[1794, 1925]

In the early 19th century Tehran was surrounded by a wall and ditch. [1]

[1]: (Bosworth ed. 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.


Complex Fortification:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Qasr-i-Qajar (Castle of the Qajars) [1] ? “By the 1870s the khans had settled down and built castles in the lush valleys of the summer pasture to the east of Isfahan.” [2]

[1]: (Wilber 1962) Donald N Wilber. 1962. Persian Gardens & Garden Pavilions. Charles E.Tuttle Company. Tokyo.

[2]: (Oehler 1993, 134) Julie Oehler. 1993. Bibi Maryam: A Bakhtiyari Tribal Woman. Edmund Burke, III. ed. Struggle and Survival in the Modern Middle East. University of California Press. Berkley.


Military use of Metals
Steel:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Cuirass (char-a’ina). Iran, Qajar period, early 19th century. Steel, gold, and textile." [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Iron:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Copper:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Bronze:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Cannon?


Projectiles
Tension Siege Engine:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Sling Siege Engine:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Sling:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Self Bow:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Javelin:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Handheld Firearm:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Not as advanced in comparison to other large states of the period. [1] Muskets were used by tribal cavalry. [2] Abbas Mirza (who was a prince/commander not the ruler) established factories for cannon and muskets. [3]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 64) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[3]: (Ward 2014, 67) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
Unknown
1800 CE

Not as advanced in comparison to other large states of the period. [1] At the beginning of the period they had "no functional heavy artillery". [2] Qajars used the zanburak [2] (a gun mounted on a camel). The French "helped to establish a cannon foundry and arsenal at Esfahan." [3]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 64) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[3]: (Ward 2014, 67) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

Gunpowder Siege Artillery:
Present
1900 CE

Not as advanced in comparison to other large states of the period. [1] At the beginning of the period they had "no functional heavy artillery". [2] Qajars used the zanburak [2] (a gun mounted on a camel). The French "helped to establish a cannon foundry and arsenal at Esfahan." [3]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 64) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[3]: (Ward 2014, 67) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Crossbow:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Composite Bow:
Present
[1794, 1925]

The bow was still used by some tribal cavalry. [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Atlatl:
Absent
[1794, 1925]

New World weapon.


Handheld weapons
War Club:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Mace. [1] In the region of modern Sudan during this period: "The Mahdist army used different types of weapons during their revolt. They used also weapons such as swords, axes and maces which resembled Persian weapons of the same period in terms of shape and decoration." [2]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 244?) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[2]: (Stephane and Khorasani 2018) Pradines Stephane. Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani. 2018. Sufi in War: Persian influence on African weaponry in the 19th century Mahdist Sudan. JAAS. Volume XXII. No.5.


Sword:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Sword. [1] Steel swords were used by tribal cavalry. [2]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 180-181) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Spear:
Present
[1794, 1925]

The lance was used by some tribal cavalry. [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Polearm:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Dagger:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Damascus steel daggers. [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Battle Axe:
Present
[1794, 1925]

In the region of modern Sudan during this period: "The Mahdist army used different types of weapons during their revolt. They used also weapons such as swords, axes and maces which resembled Persian weapons of the same period in terms of shape and decoration." [1]

[1]: (Stephane and Khorasani 2018) Pradines Stephane. Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani. 2018. Sufi in War: Persian influence on African weaponry in the 19th century Mahdist Sudan. JAAS. Volume XXII. No.5.


Animals used in warfare
Horse:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Cavalrymen. [1] "The tribal levies were expert horsemen and superior marksmen, capable of firing their muskets over their shoulders while galloping away from a foe. Many still used the lance and bow, and all carried sabers of high-quality steel..." [2]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 118) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Elephant:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Donkey:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Mules, horses and camels used for transportation. [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 71) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Dog:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Camel:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Mules, horses and camels used for transportation. [1] Qajars used the zanburak [2] (a gun mounted on a camel).

[1]: (Ward 2014, 71) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

[2]: (Ward 2014, 65) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Armor
Wood Bark Etc:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Shield:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Scaled Armor:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Plate Armor:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Cuirass (char-a’ina). Iran, Qajar period, early 19th century. Steel, gold, and textile." [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Limb Protection:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Present for Safavids and the Qajar still used cavalry.


Leather Cloth:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Cuirass (char-a’ina). Iran, Qajar period, early 19th century. Steel, gold, and textile." [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Laminar Armor:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Helmet:
Present
[1794, 1925]

Damascus steel helmet. [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Chainmail:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Dean’s collection later came to include several mail shirts with Persian- or Arabic-inscribed rings". [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 10) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Breastplate:
Present
[1794, 1925]

"Cuirass (char-a’ina). Iran, Qajar period, early 19th century. Steel, gold, and textile." [1]

[1]: (Phyrr 2015, 6) Stuart W Phyrr. 2015. American Collectors and the Formation of the Metropolitan Museum’s Collection of Islamic Arms and Armor. David G Alexander. ed. Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Yale University Press. New Haven.


Naval technology
Specialized Military Vessel:
Absent
1800 CE

"... despite the obvious importance of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf to Iran’s security and commerce, the Qajars refused to spend enough to develop a naval force. Within a few years following Nader Shah’s death, his fleet ceased to exist. The Qajars did not start to think about creating a small naval establishment until 1850..." [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 66) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.

Specialized Military Vessel:
Present
1900 CE

"... despite the obvious importance of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf to Iran’s security and commerce, the Qajars refused to spend enough to develop a naval force. Within a few years following Nader Shah’s death, his fleet ceased to exist. The Qajars did not start to think about creating a small naval establishment until 1850..." [1]

[1]: (Ward 2014, 66) Steven R Ward. 2014. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. Washington DC.


Small Vessels Canoes Etc:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]

Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service:
Unknown
[1794, 1925]


Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
[1794, 1925]
Luxury Precious Metal: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Russia

‘‘‘ gold, silver, iron, steel. “Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts [Hambly, 1964, p. 79]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Spices Incense And Dyes: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire Late Period ; Qajar ; Afghanistan; East India Company

“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “The value of Iran's trade with India was 26 lakhs of rupees, made up of a very varied list of commodities. Sugar, indigo, muslins and piece goods were imported into Iran from the Bengal Presidency; from the Madras Presidency came the famous Masulipatam chintz, piece goods and indigo; from the Malabar coast came wood for shipbuilding, coir rope for rigging, black pepper, ginger, turmeric and cardamoms. Bombay supplied articles of European manufacture, arms, china ware, sugar, sugar candy, camphor, rice, coffee and dates. Surat supplied gold cloth, coarse piece goods, coarse chintz, cotton cloth, cotton thread, handkerchiefs and indigo. From Sind came coarse chintz, leather, oil and cotton. From Java (and possibly China) there was imported, via India, sugar and spices” [Hambly, 1964, p. 80] “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Manufactured Goods: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire Late Period ; Russia

Mirrors, watches. “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts (Hambly 1964: 77-79)” [Hambly, 1964] “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels. […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Glass Goods: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire Late Period ; Afghanistan; Russia
Consumption by Elite: Present

“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels. […] Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […] Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “Since there were no tables, these recesses and mantels, in particular in the andaruni, were used for placing objects such as crystal candle holders with tulip shaped glass jars on top, candelabra, crystal pitchers, sherbet glasses, tea glasses and saucers, fruit dishes and other fine china and crystal used for entertaining” (Mahdavi 2012: 367) [Mahdavi 2012] (describing life in an urban upper class household).


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Fabrics: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire Late Period ; Qajar ; Afghanistan; Russia
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Present

“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “Qajar men's costume of the upper classes was quite elaborate. The undergarments consisted of a piraban, a collarless, round-necked long shirt in a thin cotton or silk material, white or colored, with a slit on the right-hand side bordered in black and fastened with buttons. This shirt was worn over loose trousers tapering to the ankle. Delicate short socks were worn on the feet covered by loose shoes which could easily be taken off, as was the custom upon entering a room. A jacket or a long robe called arkhulaq covered the piraban and came down to the knees. The arkhulaq of the rich could be very elaborate, often made of cashmere and always embroidered with intricate patterns on the front and on the cuffs. The best arkhulaq came from Benares (Varanasi) in India. A qaba was worn over the arkhulaq and the entire costume. It was a full length robe in solid colors of brocade with a full skirt open in the front and closed with a belt, shawl or sash. The belt could have a jeweled buckle. The shawl could be cashmere and the sash silk or satin […]. This was the most important item of clothing: aside from designating gender, the type of kola worn specified social, political and religious affiliations. Members of the 'ulama and the merchant classes did not wear a qaba but wore another type of long robe known as 'aba over a less elaborate arkhulaq. Their heads were also covered by an ‘amama , a long piece of cloth wound into a turban. Different colored ‘amamas were used by different professions and for various occasions. The affluent also could wear the (aba informally and as leisure wear at home. After the mid-nineteenth century and the introduction of Western customs, aspects of this attire changed. Men started wearing a version of the European frock coat (sardari ), usually in dark colors with a military cut over wide straight trousers. The sardari was different from the frock coat in that it had pleats at the waist and wider sleeves. The notables who adopted this costume wore an astrakhan cap in the shape of a pillbox on their heads. However, the religious and lower classes continued to wear the traditional attire” [Mahdavi 2012, p. 367] “Qajar men's costume of the upper classes was quite elaborate. The undergarments consisted of a piraban, a collarless, round-necked long shirt in a thin cotton or silk material, white or colored, with a slit on the right-hand side bordered in black and fastened with buttons. This shirt was worn over loose trousers tapering to the ankle. Delicate short socks were worn on the feet covered by loose shoes which could easily be taken off, as was the custom upon entering a room. A jacket or a long robe called arkhulaq covered the piraban and came down to the knees. The arkhulaq of the rich could be very elaborate, often made of cashmere and always embroidered with intricate patterns on the front and on the cuffs. The best arkhulaq came from Benares (Varanasi) in India. A qaba was worn over the arkhulaq and the entire costume. It was a full length robe in solid colors of brocade with a full skirt open in the front and closed with a belt, shawl or sash. The belt could have a jeweled buckle. The shawl could be cashmere and the sash silk or satin […]. This was the most important item of clothing: aside from designating gender, the type of kola worn specified social, political and religious affiliations. Members of the 'ulama and the merchant classes did not wear a qaba but wore another type of long robe known as 'aba over a less elaborate arkhulaq. Their heads were also covered by an ‘amama , a long piece of cloth wound into a turban. Different colored ‘amamas were used by different professions and for various occasions. The affluent also could wear the (aba informally and as leisure wear at home. After the mid-nineteenth century and the introduction of Western customs, aspects of this attire changed. Men started wearing a version of the European frock coat (sardari ), usually in dark colors with a military cut over wide straight trousers. The sardari was different from the frock coat in that it had pleats at the waist and wider sleeves. The notables who adopted this costume wore an astrakhan cap in the shape of a pillbox on their heads. However, the religious and lower classes continued to wear the traditional attire” (Mahdavi 2012: 367) [Mahdavi 2012]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Drink/Alcohol: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Qajar ; Russia
Consumption by Elite: Present

“Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts [Hambly, 1964, p. 79] “This [imports from the Gulf] was paid for in pearls, red silks from Rasht, silks from Yazd and Kirman, cotton, Kirman wool, carpets, sulphur, myrrh, saffron, cummin seeds, tobacco, Khurdsdn rhubarb, preserved fruits, gall-nuts, rose-water, asafoetida, drugs, wheat and salted fish, as well as horses, mules and Shirdzi wine” [Hambly, 1964, p. 80] “The consumption of hard liquor was widespread among the Qajar elite and upper classes at parties where the aim was to become drunk as soon as possible. Alcohol in various forms was easily available—wine was produced by local Armenians and Jews in Hamadan, Shiraz and Isfahan where a lethal brew of arak was also distilled in the suburb of New Julfa (Scarce 2007: 461) [Scarce 2007]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Precious Stone: Present
Place(s) of Provenance: Ottoman Empire Late Period ; Qajar ; Afghanistan
Consumption by Ruler: Present
Consumption by Elite: Present

Amber, diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls. “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat”“ [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” [Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79] “The next day, the sword was brought from Ardabil and girded on the new ruler. The crown was placed on his head and on each arm he wore an arm-band in which were set the famous gems, the Darya-yiNur and Taj-i Mah. Surviving portraits of Agha Muhammad show him wearing a high, ovoid crown, the lower part encrusted with pearls and precious stones” (Hambly 1991: 129)” [Melville_et_al 1991] “Elizabeth’s well-observed account of her visit is full of informative detail about the resources and status of elite Qajar women. Received in a room dazzling with mirror encrusted walls, she describes the equally opulent dress and ornaments of the Shah’s wife and her attendants: Nothing could exceed the splendor, the magnificence, the dazzling richness and brilliance of the scene. The slave girls were blazing in diamonds and rubies, brocades and spangles. Their dresses, originally of the richest stuffs, were so closely embroidered with pearls and precious stones that little else could be seen. Their hair hung loose, and their heads were ornamented in various ways with jewels. The Queen sat on a crimson velvet cloth which was richly embroidered with pearls, and reclined against a large square cushion of the same material, with this difference only, that the pearls here were so close together as to leave almost no portion of the velvet visible. Her own dress was most magnificent. The precious stones alone cost, independent of setting, about £150,000” ( Scarce 2007: 458) [Scarce 2007]


[1794, 1925]
Luxury Fine Ceramic Wares: Uncoded
Consumption by Elite: Present

“Since there were no tables, these recesses and mantels, in particular in the andaruni, were used for placing objects such as crystal candle holders with tulip shaped glass jars on top, candelabra, crystal pitchers, sherbet glasses, tea glasses and saucers, fruit dishes and other fine china and crystal used for entertaining” (Mahdavi 2012: 367) [Mahdavi 2012] (describing life in an urban upper class household).



Human Sacrifice Data
Human Sacrifice is the deliberate and ritualized killing of a person to please or placate supernatural entities (including gods, spirits, and ancestors) or gain other supernatural benefits.
Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions