Home Region: Southern Europe (Europe)

Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity

395 CE 476 CE

D G SC WF R CC

EQ 2020 it_western_roman_emp / ItRomWe

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

285 CE 394 CE Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity:

No Polity found. Add one here.

Displayed:

Learn more about polity border choices. Map Modern Map only Opacity Year Play rate (y/s)
Hit enter after changing the year or setting the play rate.

General Description

The period of the Western Roman Empire begins in 395 CE, when it was divided from what became the Eastern Roman Empire. ^[1] After the Empire recovered from the crises of the 3rd century CE, a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of imperial rule, known as the Dominate. The Dominate was split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half with its capital at Rome and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled ’Caesar’. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy (’rule of four’), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius emperor in the east and Honorius emperor in the west. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople’s original name).
Beginning with Honorius, the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer’s authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. ^[2] ^[3]
Population and political organization
The Western Roman Emperor in principle maintained a formal alliance with the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, which meant that all legislation generated in one half of the Empire was to be communicated to the other half and promulgated across the entire Empire. ^[4] In practice, the Western Roman Emperor was the slightly weaker party whose position depended on the acquiescence of the Eastern Empire; for instance, the term of the Western Emperor Valentinian III (r. 423-455 CE) required the agreement of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. ^[5] Further, significant differences between the ’twin Empires’ - the language of Latin in Rome, Greek in Constantinople - always strained the commitment to unity. ^[6]
The Western Emperor did not control the army. Instead, it was held by the magister equitum (’master of the cavalry’) and the magister peditum (’master of the infantry’), a new military office that gradually gained seniority over the magister equitum. Legislation in both halves of the Empire was enacted by decree, in practice meaning letters addressed to officials or to the Senate. ^[7] Directly beneath the emperor were praetorian prefects who acted on the emperor’s behalf, ’governing in his name with legal, administrative and financial powers’. ^[8] Overall, the Roman bureaucracy was comparable in size to that of Constantinople; by the end of the 4th century CE, the state provided civil positions for an estimated 40,000 people across the Empire. ^[9]
The Western Empire covered roughly two million square kilometres in 400 CE. The region was divided into large prefectures, which in turn were split into dioceses containing provinces, which were then further subdivided into cities and towns managed by civic councils. ^[10] The Roman aristocracy remained a powerful influence, at least until 439 CE, when invading Vandal tribes took Carthage and much of North Africa, depriving Rome of valuable North African revenue streams. ^[11]
Rome maintained a sizeable population, roughly 500,000 in 400 CE. However, a feature of the late Western Roman bureaucracy was that it ’shifted ... between four or five different imperial centres, dislocating with each change the networks of patronage and kinship, often regionally based, that supplied civil personnel’. ^[12]

[1]: (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

[2]: (Cameron 1993, 187) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[3]: (Burns 1991, 73-86) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

[4]: (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[5]: (Maenchen-Helfen 1973, 477-78) Otto Maenchen-Helfen. 1973. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[6]: (Millar 2006, 2) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[7]: (Millar 2006, 7) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[8]: (Hughes 2012) Ian Hughes. 2012. Aetius: Attila’s Nemesis. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books.

[9]: (Bjornlie 2016, 49) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. ’Governmental Administration’, in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill.

[10]: (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley.

[11]: (Hughes 2015) Ian Hughes. 2015. Patricians and Emperors: The Last Rulers of the Western Roman Empire. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books.

[12]: (Bjornlie 2016, 50) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. ’Governmental Administration’, in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

3 Capital

2 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religion Genus

1 Alternate Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

2 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

1 Non Phonetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Token

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases

1 Crisis Consequence

Power Transitions

9 Power Transition

Instability Events

20 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp) was in:
(395 CE 457 CE)	Latium

Home NGA: Latium

General Variables

Identity and Location Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	33 T	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Original Name	Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Capital	Mediolanum	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Capital	Ravenna	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Capital	Rome	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Alternative Name	Roman Empire	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Alternative Name	Western Roman Empire	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Temporal Bounds Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	439 CE
Loading...

Duration	[395 CE ➜ 476 CE]
Loading...

Political and Cultural Relations Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	it_western_roman_emp alliance with es_visigothic_k	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Supracultural Entity	Roman	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Succeeding Entity	Roman Empire - Late Antiquity	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Scale of Supracultural Interaction	[5,500,000 to 6,500,000] km²	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Preceding Entity 285 CE 394 CE	Roman Empire - Dominate (tr_roman_dominate) [continuity]
Loading...

Degree of Centralization	unitary state	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Language Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Language	Latin	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Religion Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religion Genus	Christianity	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Alternate Religion	Uncoded Undecided	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	500,000 people	400 CE
Loading...

Polity Territory	2,000,000 km²	400 CE
Loading...

Hierarchical Complexity Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	6	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Religious Level	8	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Military Level	[7 to 10]	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Administrative Level	8	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Professions Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Professional Priesthood	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Professional Military Officer	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Bureaucracy Characteristics Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Merit Promotion	Present Uncertain	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Merit Promotion	Absent Uncertain	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Examination System	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Law Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Judge	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Formal Legal Code	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Court	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Specialized Buildings: polity owned Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Irrigation System	Uncoded Undecided	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Food Storage Site	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Drinking Water Supply System	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Transport Infrastructure Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Port	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Canal	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Bridge	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Special-purpose Sites Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Information / Writing System Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Script	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Nonwritten Record	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Non Phonetic Writing	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Information / Kinds of Written Documents Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Sacred Text	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Religious Literature	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Practical Literature	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Philosophy	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Lists Tables and Classification	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

History	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Fiction	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Calendar	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Information / Money Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Token	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Precious Metal	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Paper Currency	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Indigenous Coin	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Article	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Information / Postal System Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

General Postal Service	Present Inferred	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Courier	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Information / Measurement System Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Stone Walls Mortared	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Settlements in a Defensive Position	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Modern Fortification	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moat	Unknown	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Fortified Camp	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Earth Rampart	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Ditch	Present Inferred	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Complex Fortification	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Military use of Metals Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Iron	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Copper	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Bronze	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Projectiles Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Sling Siege Engine	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Sling	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Self Bow	Unknown	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Javelin	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Handheld Firearm	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Crossbow	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Composite Bow	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Atlatl	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Handheld weapons Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Sword	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Spear	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Polearm	Unknown	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Dagger	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Battle Axe	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Animals used in warfare Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Elephant	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Donkey	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Dog	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Camel	Absent	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Armor Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Shield	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Scaled Armor	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Plate Armor	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Limb Protection	Present Inferred	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Leather Cloth	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Laminar Armor	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Helmet	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Chainmail	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Breastplate	Present Inferred	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Naval technology Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Present	395 CE 476 CE
Loading...

Human Sacrifice Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity (it_western_roman_emp)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More