The polity at Akkad in Iraq is often thought to represent the "first world empire".
[1]
[2]
Its name derives from city of Akkad (Agade, location still undetermined), which was a capital of the kingdom. The period is also called Sargonic Period after the founder of Akkad and the ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). The end of Akkadian empire seems to be associated with the invasion of the Gutians, and is correlated with some climate changes.
[3]
Sargon’s power mainly depended on his army, which was probably a regular standing army.
[4]
Foster (2016) describes an Empire as "an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland" and claims this is "precisely what we see in the Akkadian period."
[5]
Barjamovic (2012) notes that the formation of the private royal army and the construction of regional military strongholds together with the division of the conquered territories into provinces was the key to Akkad’s "permanent imperial presence."
[6]
To increase control from the center, Sargon appointed Akkadian governors (ensi) in Sumerian cities in a place of older Sumerian rulers
[7]
although some cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi.
[8]
In fact, all local officials probably had a great deal of de facto independence.
[8]
As an additional means of control, Sargon sent his daughter - Enheduanna - to be the highest priestess of god Sin in Uruk. This practice was continued by his descendants.
[9]
Naram-Sin, a grandson of Sargon, was one of the greatest ruler of Akkad in terms of military conquest and administration. His reforms included a unified system of measurements. He undertook also the process of renovation of Ekur temple and on his death was deified and treated as protective deity.
[10]
Akkadian was the official language of empire, and all official documents were written in Akkadian, although Sumerian still was in use, especially in Southern Mesopotamia.
[11]
[1]: (Brisch 2013, 120) N Brisch. 2013. History and chronology. In: H. Crawford (ed.), The Sumerian World.London and New York: Routledge, 111-130.
[2]: Liverani 1993
[3]: (Weiss 2002, 22) H Weiss. 2002. Akkadian. Akkadian Empire. In: P. N. Peregrine & M. Ember, Encyclopaedia of Prehistory. South and Southeast Asia, Volume 8. New York: Springer, 21-24.
[4]: (Hamblin 2006, 74-75) W J Hamblin. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 80) Benjamin R Foster. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Barjamović 2012, 130) G Barjamović. 2012. Mesopotamian Empires. In: P. Fibiger Bang & W. Scheidel (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 120-160.
[7]: (Hamblin 2006, 75) W J Hamblin. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge.
[8]: (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[9]: (Franke 1995, 831-841) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) Civilization of Ancient Near East. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841.
[10]: (Franke 1995, 384) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) Civilization of Ancient Near East. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841.
[11]: (Van de Mieroop 2007, 67)
| alliance with [---] |
| Gutian Dynasty |
| cultural assimilation | |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] |
| unitary state |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| present |
| absent |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| absent |
| inferred absent |
| Year Range | Akkadian Empire (iq_akkad_emp) was in: |
|---|---|
| (2350 BCE 2250 BCE) | Southern Mesopotamia |
| (2250 BCE 2150 BCE) | Southern Mesopotamia Susiana |
| (2150 BCE 2113 BCE) | Susiana |
The exact location of this site is still unknown
[1]
[2]
"Akkad was named after its capital city, Agade, built around 2335 B.C.E. by Akkad’s first king, Sargon of Akkad (r. ca. 2334-2279 B.C.E.)."
[3]
location of Akkadian capital not identified.
[4]
Agade.
[5]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 73
[2]: Wall-Romana 1990, 205-245
[3]: (Middleton 2015, 21) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[4]: (Leverani 2014, 139) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 14) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] [2] [3] "Sargon called his empire ’the land of Sumer and Akkad’." [4] The inhabitants of Akkad called themselves Akkadian, under Sargon the term "acquired a new meaning that referred to people who had adopted the values, culture, loyalty, and way of life characteristic with the ruling elite of their time." [5] "Today ... Agade refers to the city and Akkad to theland, but in antiquity the same word was used for both." [6] This period is also called Sargonic Period and the name came from the founder of Akkad and the whole ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). His descent is unclear and there are many legends regarding his family. One of them is telling that his mother was a priestess and Sargon did not know his father. Another one says he was a gardener and beloved of goddess Istar who gave him Sumer to rule. There is also information that he was a cup-bearer in the palace of Kish’s king - Ur-Zababa and he came to power thanks palace revolt. Sargon quickly conquered whole Sumer and control whole Mesopotamia, however his brutal and ruthless methods (which were later absorbed by his descendants), such as capturing defeated kings and governors, destroying city walls and looting conquered area did not brought him popularity and sympathy of Sumerians and other inhabitants of Mesopotamia. That partially explained frequency and intensity of internal rebellions against Sargon and Sargonid dynasty. [7] [8] [9]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 100
[2]: Crawford 2004, 154
[3]: Postgate 2007,36
[4]: (Middleton 2015, 21) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 30) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Foster 2016, 31) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[7]: Postgate 2007, 40-41
[8]: Barjamovic 2012, 129-130
[9]: Gadd 1971, 418-419
[1] [2] [3] "Sargon called his empire ’the land of Sumer and Akkad’." [4] The inhabitants of Akkad called themselves Akkadian, under Sargon the term "acquired a new meaning that referred to people who had adopted the values, culture, loyalty, and way of life characteristic with the ruling elite of their time." [5] "Today ... Agade refers to the city and Akkad to theland, but in antiquity the same word was used for both." [6] This period is also called Sargonic Period and the name came from the founder of Akkad and the whole ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). His descent is unclear and there are many legends regarding his family. One of them is telling that his mother was a priestess and Sargon did not know his father. Another one says he was a gardener and beloved of goddess Istar who gave him Sumer to rule. There is also information that he was a cup-bearer in the palace of Kish’s king - Ur-Zababa and he came to power thanks palace revolt. Sargon quickly conquered whole Sumer and control whole Mesopotamia, however his brutal and ruthless methods (which were later absorbed by his descendants), such as capturing defeated kings and governors, destroying city walls and looting conquered area did not brought him popularity and sympathy of Sumerians and other inhabitants of Mesopotamia. That partially explained frequency and intensity of internal rebellions against Sargon and Sargonid dynasty. [7] [8] [9]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 100
[2]: Crawford 2004, 154
[3]: Postgate 2007,36
[4]: (Middleton 2015, 21) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 30) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Foster 2016, 31) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[7]: Postgate 2007, 40-41
[8]: Barjamovic 2012, 129-130
[9]: Gadd 1971, 418-419
[1] [2] [3] "Sargon called his empire ’the land of Sumer and Akkad’." [4] The inhabitants of Akkad called themselves Akkadian, under Sargon the term "acquired a new meaning that referred to people who had adopted the values, culture, loyalty, and way of life characteristic with the ruling elite of their time." [5] "Today ... Agade refers to the city and Akkad to theland, but in antiquity the same word was used for both." [6] This period is also called Sargonic Period and the name came from the founder of Akkad and the whole ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). His descent is unclear and there are many legends regarding his family. One of them is telling that his mother was a priestess and Sargon did not know his father. Another one says he was a gardener and beloved of goddess Istar who gave him Sumer to rule. There is also information that he was a cup-bearer in the palace of Kish’s king - Ur-Zababa and he came to power thanks palace revolt. Sargon quickly conquered whole Sumer and control whole Mesopotamia, however his brutal and ruthless methods (which were later absorbed by his descendants), such as capturing defeated kings and governors, destroying city walls and looting conquered area did not brought him popularity and sympathy of Sumerians and other inhabitants of Mesopotamia. That partially explained frequency and intensity of internal rebellions against Sargon and Sargonid dynasty. [7] [8] [9]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 100
[2]: Crawford 2004, 154
[3]: Postgate 2007,36
[4]: (Middleton 2015, 21) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 30) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Foster 2016, 31) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[7]: Postgate 2007, 40-41
[8]: Barjamovic 2012, 129-130
[9]: Gadd 1971, 418-419
according to short chronology. The beginning of this period is designated by inauguration of Sargon’s reign and the final data is related to the end of Shar-kali-sharri’s reign.
[1]
second half third century, occupied Susiana.
[2]
[1]: Roux 1998, 133, 138
[2]: (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 7) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
"We know now that Semitic people were already present in Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, they did not settle in the region after a mass immigration." [1] The relation to preceding polity is complicated. Sargon, was an Akkadian and he was probably cup-bear in the palace of Ur-Zababa, king of Kish. The Akaddians were earlier present component of cultural and ethic map of Sumer and the region of Babilon, but they did not play any important political role. Sargon was a person who united the Akkadian people and provided the privilege when he conquered Sumer. [2]
[1]: (Leverani 2014, 139) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[2]: Postgate 2007, 36
"We know now that Semitic people were already present in Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, they did not settle in the region after a mass immigration." [1] The relation to preceding polity is complicated. Sargon, was an Akkadian and he was probably cup-bear in the palace of Ur-Zababa, king of Kish. The Akaddians were earlier present component of cultural and ethic map of Sumer and the region of Babilon, but they did not play any important political role. Sargon was a person who united the Akkadian people and provided the privilege when he conquered Sumer. [2]
[1]: (Leverani 2014, 139) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[2]: Postgate 2007, 36
(Relationship): "We know now that Semitic people were already present in Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, they did not settle in the region after a mass immigration."
[1]
The relation to preceding polity is complicated. Sargon, was an Akkadian and he was probably cup-bear in the palace of Ur-Zababa, king of Kish. The Akaddians were earlier present component of cultural and ethic map of Sumer and the region of Babilon, but they did not play any important political role. Sargon was a person who united the Akkadian people and provided the privilege when he conquered Sumer.
[2]
, "We know now that Semitic people were already present in Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, they did not settle in the region after a mass immigration."
[1]
The relation to preceding polity is complicated. Sargon, was an Akkadian and he was probably cup-bear in the palace of Ur-Zababa, king of Kish. The Akaddians were earlier present component of cultural and ethic map of Sumer and the region of Babilon, but they did not play any important political role. Sargon was a person who united the Akkadian people and provided the privilege when he conquered Sumer.
[2]
(Entity): I Lagash dynasty
[1]: (Leverani 2014, 139) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[2]: Postgate 2007, 36
All Akkadian kings aimed to centralize power and control all local governors. Therefore, they undertook several reforms such using Akkadian in official calculation, set the officials and governors which will be dependent on them etc.
[1]
Akkadian Empire: "It was an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland. This is precisely what we see in the Akkadian period."
[2]
Akkaddian empire can be divided into centre and periphery. "In the centre, Akkadian control was exercised in a compact, yet indirect way. The administration of cities was left in the hands of the local ensi. These were under the authority of the king of Akkad, but held a certain degree of autonomy. It is probably that some cities were ruled by an Akkadian ensi appointed by the king, while other cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi."
[3]
[1]: Postgate 2007,36
[2]: (Foster 2016, 80) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[1] "Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad." [2] "Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ..." [3]
[1]: Roux 1998, 128
[2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] "Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad." [2] "Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ..." [3]
[1]: Roux 1998, 128
[2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
According to Adams: "For the Akkade period there are some curious findings. The villages become repopulated, most likely because of internal controls by means of a chain of police posts meant to guard the safety of the major trade routes. Yet in the south many larger cities dwindle or are abandoned outright (...)Umma, for instance, dwindled in area from more than 400 hectares to somewhere between 200 and 40 hectares, whole the substantial city of Umm-el-Aqarib to the south of it- possible ancient Kit-dingir-was totally abandoned."
[1]
If we assume 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, then 200 inhabitants in a city of 40 ha is our lowest estimate for Umma, and 40,000 inhabitants for a city of 200 ha our highest.
"Map 1. Sumer and Akkad in the Akkadian period."
[2]
names of cities in Sumer region, level with Agade "location uncertain" or below (i.e. Southeast toward Gulf): Eshnunna; Tutub; Sippar; Cutha; Mughan; Der; Babylon; Borsippa; Kish; Dilbat; Kazallu; Eresh; Marad; Nippur; Kesh; Tell el-Wilayah; Adab; Isin; Shuruppak; Zabala; Umma; Uruk; Larsa; Girsu; Lagash; Apishal; Mesag Estate; E-igi-il; Susa; Ur; Eridu.
"Adab was an Akkadian administrative center of major importance throughout the Akkadian period, perhaps one of the largest cities in the region, with extensive connections elsewhere (Map 2)."
[3]
[1]: Adams 1981, XIV
[2]: (Foster 2016, 48) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 66) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
in squared kilometers.
Sargon undertook several campaigns both to crush internal rebellions and extend the territory of Akkad. As a result, his empire became huge as never before. To cite Hamblin: "He created the largest empire the world had yet known, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and encompassing most of modern Iraq and Syria, and over twice the size in population and land of contemporary Egypt. From another perspective, however, Sargon’s empire was what we would call today a humanitarian disaster, for "the god Enlil instructed [Sargon to conquer the world] and he showed mercy to no one"
[1]
c2200 BCE (actually later)
1,100,000 maximum extent - much larger than presented on current maps. Marhashi in the East is on the border with Afghanistan. Maximum extent estimated from Map 2. p.81 Foster (2016)
[2]
Naram-Sin claimed conquests "from Marhashi in the east as far as the Cedar Forest, presumably the slops of the Amanus or Lebanon; from the Mediterranean to the "lands beyond the sea," perhaps as far as Oman, a claim fully justified by administrative documents from his reign (Chapter 3, part 6)."
[3]
"This network of political, economic, and diplomatic interconnections, stretching from northern Syria to eastern Iran and the Indus Valley and Oman, not only corresponds well to the territorial claims of Naram-Sin (Chapter 1 part 4), but also demonstrates that the Akkadian Empire was indeed a historical reality and the world’s first documented empire."
[4]
"The systematic destruction of city walls shows Akkadian determination to subjugate territory by removing a key symbol of social and political identity, not just to break resistance but to achieve imperial integration."
[4]
"As the Akkadians and their empire expanded, Akkad came to include the entire alluvial plain, along the Euphrates from a point north of Nippur to Sippar, where the alluvium begins, and along the Tigris at least as far as the Adheim River and perhaps further north."
[5]
Liverani says Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin "controlled the region of Elam, and not its broad confederation."
[6]
The "broad confederation" would presumably include Marhashi. So although his military forces did conquer this region Akkad had no way to directly control it. So if it was ever part of an "Empire" it was through means of influence other than force (after the initial conquest and retreat).
"The kings of Awan continued to rule, and relations between Akkad and Awan (described in the inscriptions as subjugated by Akkad) are recorded on an Elamite treaty found at Susa. The agreement was between Naram-Sin and the king of Elam, who is recognised as a political and legal representative of Elam. However, it is true that, after these last attestations, the dynasty of Awan seems to have disappeared. Susa had an Akkadian official in power and Susiana began to be significantly influenced by Akkadian culture."
[6]
second half third century, occupied Susiana.
[7]
"Despite the fact the Elamites had not been defeated for good, Rimush proclaimed that Enlil had given him ’all the land’ (that is, the Mesopotamian alluvial plain) and ’all the mountains’ (that is, the preriphery), from the Lower Sea to the Upper Sea."
[6]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 76
[2]: (Foster 2016, 81) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 10) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[4]: (Foster 2016, 82) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 30) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Leverani 2014, 135) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[7]: (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 7) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
levels.
1. Capital
2. Provincial capitalProvincial capitals built along international trade routes.
[1]
"Akkadian administrative centers and settlements have been identified in the Diyala region and Akkad, the Himrin Basin, Assyria, Sumer, southwestern Iran, and Syria."
[2]
3. Lesser administrative center"Awal/Suleimeh was therefore a low-level center dedicated to revenue-gathering from the local population, rather than a seat for extensive local direct exploitation, as seen on the lower Diyala, in Babylonia, and in Sumer."
[3]
4. Village"Passing through the region from city to city during the Akkadian period, one might have seen villages, towns, and manors surrounded by gardens, orchards, and fields, as well as considerable expanses of unihabited territory where nomadic people could move about freely and peaceably."
[4]
5.
1. City - c. 100 ha (e.g. Umma, Uruk)2. Large Town - 30 ha (Shuruppak, Adab)3. Town - 15 ha4. Village - 7 ha5. Hamlet - 2 ha
[5]
[1]: (Baizerman 2015) Baizerman, Michael. 2015. Dawn and Sunset: A Tale of the Oldest Cities in the Near East. AuthorHouse.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 53) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 62) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[4]: (Foster 2016, 35) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[5]: Adams 1981, 142
levels.
1. King
Naram-Sin may have been a high priest at the Eulmash temple in Agade.
[1]
2. Priests and Priestesses of eight sanctuaries "listed in Naram-Sin’s inscription recording his deification"
[1]
"Naram-sin placed three of his daughters in key cultic positions. One of them, Tutanabsham, became high priestess of Enlil at Nippur; so important was this event that a year was named after it, which states that she was chosen by divination. A second, Enmenanna, became high priestess of the moon-god at Ur, successor to her great-aunt Enheduanna. A third, Shumshani, became high priestess of the sun-god at Sippar. Since these three sanctuaries are among the eight listed in Naram-Sin’s inscription recording his deification, it is tempting to speculate that progeny or close relatives of Naram-Sin may have served in the other five, creating a network of family alliances linking Naram-Sin with the gods."
[1]
3. Sanga (leading administrator subordinate to local governor)4. Lay personnel (Stewards, weavers, herdsmen etc.)5. Lay personnel
3. Lesser priest?4. Professional cult singers, dream interpreters, performers of rituals
Temples usually largest building in a Sumerian city. "organized as manors, with an enclosed central complex for religious rites, as well as ancillary buildings, including staff residences, barns, and storage buildings. The leading cultic figure was a high priest or priestess, and the leading administrator was the sanga. The sanga had previously overseen the temple lands, gardens, herds, flocks, and other resources, but now, in Sumer at least, he was subordinate to both the local governor and the representatives of the king’s household. ... Temple personnel numbered in the hundreds. There were stewards, herdsmen, building attendants, weavers, cultivators, and boatmen,as well as laborers, some of whom were dedicated to temple service by their families. ... such professionals as cult singers, dream interpreters, and performers of rituals."
[2]
tablets that refer to the administration of the temple of Tishpak tell of boys and girls entering temple service, girls who learn singing in the temple conservatory.
[3]
"Akkadian ruler’s assumption of the right to appoint high priestesses and other key cultic personnel."
[4]
In governor’s records at Lagash reference to high priestess of Ilaba, "one of the patron deities of Agade", who held over 400 hectares of arable land, which was administered by the local governor."
[5]
"The ancient city-states were reorganized into provinces, and the ancient temples were now dependent on the Akkadian king for support, renovation, dedications and gifts."
[6]
in centre: north/south religious split. "The new deification of the king and the role of the goddess of Akkad, Ishtar, characterised the north. On the contrary, the south was still centred on the authority of city-gods and of the supreme Sumerian deity, Enlil, god of Nippur. The kings of Akkad paid considerable attention to Enlil and Nippur."
[7]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 22) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 42-43) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 57) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[4]: (Foster 2016, 46) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 42) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[7]: (Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
levels.
1. King
"The king was supreme commander, the general the top field officer."
[1]
2. ShakkanakkumGeneral - shakkanakkum.
[2]
3. General in charge of smaller army divisions (shagina)
[3]
-- not mentioned by Foster (2016)> Ensi governor
[3]
-- not mentioned by Foster (2016); note below> Captain of local detachment -- when not in the field are governors part of the chain of command?> Individual soldier
4. Nu-bandanu-banda.
[3]
"The next command in rank was the nu-banda." Battalion, probably had 600 men.
[1]
Colonel or major - nubanda.
[2]
5. UgalaUgala lead smaller unit of about 60.
[1]
Captain - ugala.
[2]
6. Individual soldier
At Mugdan was "the seat of a manor that dominated the local countryside. ... This manor belong to members of the royal faily or royal household ... managed by a governor (ensi). Other local officials included the shaperum (majordomi) and a captain in command of a detachment of soldiers stationed there."
[4]
Records from Umma
"booty officer(?), the son of a governor in Syria (in training?), equerry, royal commissioner, door attendant, recruiter, courier, cupbearer, minister, quartermaster(?), saperum wuth his clerk, quartermaster of garments(?), physician, porters, constable, an officer in charge of putting identification marks on (captured?) goods (? saper ZAG.SUS), an ass herder, and an assortment of foreigners."
[1]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: Hamblin 2006, 97
[4]: (Foster 2016, 59) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
levels.
1. King
_Palatial government_
2. Shaperum/majordomo"The chief civil administrator was the shaperum, "majordomo" or "steward of the royal household." No comparable office existed in Sumer, so the Akkaddian word and concept were borrowed into Sumerian at this time."
[1]
3. Land registrar"A key civil figure after the steward of the royal household was the land registrar, the man accountable for the extensive arable districts controlled by the royal household and used to maintain officialdom."
[1]
4. Surveyor"The record keeping for accountable land and the surveying of subdivisions and plots fell to the land registrar and his staff of scribes and surveyors."
[1]
4. Scribes
2. Royal inspector"Akkadian administrators expected beautifully written, summary ledgers, with easy to read and understand broad schemes of accounting, to be filed in every locality, read for examination by the royal inspector ... One may suppose that this person was an independent auditor who went from place to place to ensure that the king’s interests and rights were being maintained."
[2]
_Provincial government_
2. Governors (called ensi in Sumerian)3. Majordomo4. Bureau for the acquisition of oils and aromatics5. Assistant inferred
4. Skilled artisan5. Assistant
3. Bailiff4. Scribes
4. Foremen
4. Recruiting officer5. Village headmen
Royal household. 1. Majordomo or shaperum "an exalted, trusted personage who held executive responsibility for the king’s resources in land and buildings, specie, livestock, and personnel". 2. Courtiers "prepared and served their food and drink, dressed and groomed them, readied and maintained their transport animals and wagons, entertained them, served as their messengers and couriers, and did their confidential divination and secretarial work." "There are no signs of an advisory cabinet. 3. Other officials: "the registrar of land, chief, and subordinate scribes" - possibly responsible tothe majordomo.
[3]
At Mugdan was "the seat of a manor that dominated the local countryside. ... This manor belong to members of the royal faily or royal household ... managed by a governor (ensi). Other local officials included the shaperum (majordomi) and a captain in command of a detachment of soldiers stationed there."
[4]
Akkadian Empire: "It was an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland. This is precisely what we see in the Akkadian period."
[5]
Administrative documents from Adab show one of the governor’s tasks "was the management of arable land. In this capacity, he received various letters and petitions" such as requests for irrigated land.
[6]
Palace at Eshnunna "had a special bureau that maintained records for the acquisition and distribution of oils and aromatics"
[7]
-- at least two levels here
"the records from Eshnunna reveal a large and complex agricultural operation involving hundreds of hectares, teams of professional plowmen, hundreds of draught animals, and thousands of sheep and goats. ... perhaps under the control of an Akkadian governor, who may have been a member of the royal family."
[8]
"A key civil figure after the steward of the royal household was the land registrar, the man accountable for the extensive arable districts controlled by the royal household and used to maintain officialdom."
[1]
local administrators: "the bailiff, the scribes who measured parcels of land and houses,the men in charge of apportioning irrigation water, the foremen of teams of working men and women, the commander of the local military unit, the recruiting officer for military service and public works, the mayor or headman of the town or village."
[9]
"first the king’s governors, whom he appointed and who served at his pleasure, being dignitaries of political, military, and economic importance; second, the heads of the ancient cult centers, which in Sumer particularly, controlled considerable arable land; and third the notables, who received from the king’s land office fields for their own support and for distribution as patronage to others."
[10]
Hence a Sumerian poet wrote: "The governors of cities, the managers of temples. The scribes who parcelled out the farmland in the steppe."
[10]
Governor of a city or city-state was called ensi in Sumerian.
[10]
Sargon appointed Akkadians - people with "willingness to leave their own city and community, to enter the king’s service, and to depend upon him for preferment" - as ensi where he conquered.
[10]
Under Akkad the ensi in Sumer did the same job as before but they could no longer be called kings.
[10]
Ensi city governors "responsible for upholding security and law and order in their cities. Maintenance of roads, canals, and major buildings was another of their duties."
[11]
in centre: "unlike the following Ur III period, the ensi were not yet governors, but were still rulers dependent on Akkadian support and approval."
[12]
in periphery: "On a political level, it was too vast and varied, with urban centres located in the middle of steppes, mountains and other areas ... Therefore, Akkad’s interest was mainly commercial. This interest was secured through treaties with states too strong to be subdued (such as in the case of Elam), or through the appointment of a local ensi (such as the sankanakku of Mari). Another possibility was the creation of Akkadian strongholds in foreign territories, such as Naram-Sin’s palace at Naga (Tell-Brak). This was probably not the only palace built by Akkadian rulers, and was possibly the most suitable way to keep a vast commercial network under control."
[12]
Rimash created a royal domain out of 134,000 hectares of agricultural land near Lagash and Umma in Sumer and distributed it among his retainers. These individuals had no ties to the city-states or temples of Sumer.
[13]
Discussion on local assembly / village headman or mayor
Local assembly known as the ukken (Sumerian) and puhrum (Akkadian) "limited to free citizens chosen or elected. In principle, all of them could voice opinions, but in practice key decisions, such as declaration of war, were made by a subgroup of elders who appointed a war leader in time of threat."
[14]
"The assembly had control over local land resources through approving major real estate transactions. It could also set prices, fines, taxes, undertake public works and other communal actions, and administer property, which originally included the temple before it evolved as a separate great household. In addition, the assembly exercised general control over administrative and governmental activity on the local level."
[14]
-- however, "no direct evidence for such an assembly exists in Akkadian sources, even among the many legal documents for the period".
[15]
"records refer to a ’mayor’ (rabianum), perhaps a headman of a tribe or settlement, who mediated disputes, was responsible for dealing with crime, and recruited men for labor and military service. Others mention multiple "elders," who carried out many of the same functions. Still others refer to the ’town’ or ’city,’ local notables who oversaw such matters as the conduct of business and commerce; this suggests the existence of a city corporation or government. ... For a village or rural area, a mayor or elders might have sufficed, whereas a larger agglomeration with a market and several local institutions might have had a ’town’ or ’city’ board." Existence of assembly inferred from later Sumerian fictional literature.
[15]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 43) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[4]: (Foster 2016, 59) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[5]: (Foster 2016, 80) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[6]: (Foster 2016, 67) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[7]: (Foster 2016, 56) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[8]: (Foster 2016, 57) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[9]: (Foster 2016, 39) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[10]: (Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[11]: (Foster 2016, 41) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[12]: (Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.
[13]: (Foster 2016, 7) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[14]: (Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[15]: (Foster 2016, 45) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] "The Akkadian professional army, Diakonoff suggested, gave individual citizens another path to personal advancement, further undermining local community self-government." [2]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 97
[2]: (Foster 2016, 45) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
Ruler’s residence was also an administrative building:"The palace (Sumerian e.gal, Akkadian ekallum) was the residence of the royal family in city-states and imperial capitals, such as Mari and Nineveh, and of governors in provincial cities and towns, such as Eshnunna. It was also an administrative, industrial, and economic center." [1] "practice of the early Akkadian elite of using Akkadian structures and record-keeping techniques" [2]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 153) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 50) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
Schooling was present, no formal examination system to enter service (known?).
"The court procedure entailed appearing before a judge or judges, who may have been paid for hearing the case, and hiring a bailiff, whose task it was to schedule the trial and assemble the parties and witnesses at the right time and place, for which he too received a fee. A scribe was needed to draw up a summary of the case and finding. No doubt he received a fee as well." [1]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 39) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
No specific legal training. Was this "important dignitary" a specialist at judging or did he/she also have other jobs?
"There was also a formal court procedure before judges, but this cost money, so was presumably resorted to only by people with means. Judges were important dignitaries, entitled to enjoy the income from good-sized estates given them by the king’s officials; the act of judging was a divine attribute, associated with profound knowledge, probity, fairness, and wisdom, rather than with specific legal training."
[1]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 38) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
"Long before the dynasty of Sargon, Mesopotamia had both concepts and practices of law, governing certain relations between and among individuals, families, the community and the government. Although no formal collection of legal decisions, promulgations, or pronouncements about law has come down to us from the Akkadian period, we can reconstruct aspects of its law from a rich inventory of documents recording instances of its practice, from both Sumer and Akkad, as well as the earliest known records of litigation."
[1]
Ur-Nammu of Ur III (r. c2112-2094 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. c. 2094-2047 BCE) "some scholars believe was the author of the first recorded set of law codes."
[2]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 37) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Middleton 2015, 979) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
royal courts were known
[1]
"The court procedure entailed appearing before a judge or judges, who may have been paid for hearing the case, and hiring a bailiff, whose task it was to schedule the trial and assemble the parties and witnesses at the right time and place, for which he too received a fee. A scribe was needed to draw up a summary of the case and finding. No doubt he received a fee as well."
[2]
"Later evidence suggests that disputes over property or social status were adjudicated in the first instance at the local level, using neighborhood, temple, or community authorities or notables, the last called "elders" or "mayors" in Akkadian times ..."
[3]
"There was also a formal court procedure before judges, but this cost money, so was presumably resorted to only by people with means. Judges were important dignitaries, entitled to enjoy the income from good-sized estates given them by the king’s officials; the act of judging was a divine attribute, associated with profound knowledge, probity, fairness, and wisdom, rather than with specific legal training."
[3]
[1]: Barjamović 2012, 131
[2]: (Foster 2016, 39) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 38) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
"The presence of travellers from Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha at Susa, far inland from the Gulf, raises the possibility that Susa was a base for the overland caravan trade, both within Iran and further afield." [1]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 74-75) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] "The countryside of Akkad was extensively irrigated so that barley and wheat were grown as winter crops, with a second, smaller, summer crop." [2] "The only public waterworks that the Akkadian kings boasted of were in Sumer, not Akkad, suggesting that the Akkadian Empire depended upon Sumer as its main agricultural base". [3]
[1]: Barjamović 2012, 130
[2]: (Foster 2016, 34) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Foster 2016, 35) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
Sargon built roads. [1] Ensi city governors "responsible for upholding security and law and order in their cities. Maintenance of roads, canals, and major buildings was another of their duties." [2] Bassetki, a settlement close to the town of Dohuk excavated by archaeologists from the Institute for Ancient Near Eastern Studies: "There’s proof of extensive road networks that were built in 1800 BCE. Uncovered during the dig, these roads would have connected to the city to Anatolia and Mesopotamia." [3]
[1]: (Baizerman 2015) Baizerman, Michael. 2015. Dawn and Sunset: A Tale of the Oldest Cities in the Near East. AuthorHouse.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 41) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: 5,000 year old city from the Akkadian Empire found in northern Iraq. 18th December 2016. The Vintage News. http://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/12/18/5000-year-old-city-from-the-akkadian-empire-found-in-northern-iraq/
[1] Mesopotamia c2000-1500 BCE: "It was an important task for the rulers of Mesopotamia to dig canals and to maintain them, because canals were not only necessary for irrigation but also useful for the transport of goods and armies. The rulers or high government officials must have ordered Babylonian mathematicians to calculate the number of workers and days necessary for the building of a canal, and to calculate the total expenses of wages of the workers." [2] Ensi city governors "responsible for upholding security and law and order in their cities. Maintenance of roads, canals, and major buildings was another of their duties." [3]
[1]: Wall-Romana 1990, 213
[2]: Muroi in J J O’Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html
[3]: (Foster 2016, 41) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] "Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad." [2] )
[1]: Crawford 2004, 197
[2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.
e. g. glyptic [1] "From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres." [2] "From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three "grain marks," five jars of oil by five "oil marks," and so on." [3]
[1]: Crawford 2004, 203
[2]: (Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.
[3]: (Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.
"The Akkadians invented the abacus as a tool for counting" [1]
[1]: J J O’Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html
"Akkadian administrators were accustomed to mathematical models for agricultural management and production, for example, a standard ratio of how much land could be plowed by one team." [1]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 18) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
"Literate governors belonged to a small, proud elite of school graduates who could write the elegant Akkadian hand, quote lightly literature they had studied in class, read and write their own sometimes florid letters, and understand the technical details of measuring land, estimating crops, and apportioning taxes and income." [1] "This suggests that during the reign of Naram-Sin there was a drive for uniformity and consistency in the planning of administrative structures, parallel to the reforms of metrology, record-keeping and self-presentation in prose and art." [2]
[1]: (Foster 2016, 41) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 54) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
"Akkadian kings ... encouraged the development of prose narrative to memoralize their accomplishments." [1] "A later poem about an Akkadian campaign refers to statues errected in honor of fallen soldiers." [2] Enheduanna - poetess.
[1]: (Foster 2016, 166) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] Helmets could be made of copper. [2] "The majority of metal weaponry was likely made of arsenical copper in the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE.Tin bronzes, along with arsenical bronze alloys with a higher percentage of arsenic, are more common towards the middle of the 3rd millennium, which corresponds to the EDIII. (Moorey 1985: 250–54; Malfoy and Menu 1987: 356–59; Potts 1997: 167; De Ryck et al. 2005: 263–66)." [3]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 77
[2]: (Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
[1] "The majority of metal weaponry was likely made of arsenical copper in the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE.Tin bronzes, along with arsenical bronze alloys with a higher percentage of arsenic, are more common towards the middle of the 3rd millennium, which corresponds to the EDIII. (Moorey 1985: 250–54; Malfoy and Menu 1987: 356–59; Potts 1997: 167; De Ryck et al. 2005: 263–66)." [2]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 89
[2]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
In Anatolia siege warfare was mentioned in Old Hittite records. [1] Presumably at this time the catapult was not used? In India, according to Jain texts, Ajatashatru, a 5th century BCE king of Magadha in North India, used a catapult "capable of hurling huge pieces of stone". [2] Marsden (1969) said archaeological records exist before the 4th century BCE. [3] The Achaemenids (c400 BCE?) are assumed to have had the catapult because the Macedonians did. [4] Pollard and Berry (2012) say torsion catapults first came into widespread use in the Hellenistic period 4th - 1st centuries BCE. [5] The Syracuse Greek Dionysios I invented a form of crossbow called the gastraphetes in 399 BCE which encouraged the development of large tension-powered weapons. [6] There is no direct evidence for catapults for this time/location. The aforementioned evidence we currently have covering the wider ancient world suggests they were probably not used at this time, perhaps because effective machines had not been invented yet.
[1]: Siegelova I. and H. Tsumoto (2011) Metals and Metallurgy in Hittite Anatolia, pp. 278 [In:] H. Genz and D. P. Mielke (ed.) Insights Into Hittite History And Archaeology, Colloquia Antiqua 2, Leuven, Paris, Walpole MA: PEETERS, pp. 275-300
[2]: (Singh 2008, 272) Upinder Singh. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Longman. Delhi.
[3]: (Marsden 1969, 5, 16, 66.) Marsden, E. W. 1969. Greek and Roman Artillery: The Historical Development. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
[4]: (Dandamaev 1989, 314) Dandamaev, M A. 1989. A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill.
[5]: (Pollard and Berry 2012, 45) Pollard, N, Berry, J (2012) The Complete Roman Legions, Thames and Hudson, London Rives, J (2006) Religion in the Roman Empire, Wiley
[6]: (Keyser and Irby-Massie 2006, 260) Paul T Keyser. Georgia Irby-Massie. Science, Medicine, And Technology. Glenn R Bugh. ed. 2006. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
The counter-weight trebuchet was first used by the Byzantines in 1165 CE.
Not shown in detailed military iconography. [1] [2] "Round and ovoid sling pellets have been dug up in early Sumer and Turkestan. Ovoid sling pellets have been unearthed at the neolithic sites on the Iranian tableland. In later times, the sling was used in Palestine and Syria. It was introduced in Egypt at a still later date." [3] On Naram-Sin’s Victory Stele "two men armed what may be a throw-stick or a sling, carrying either short or long darts or a container of sling bullets." [4]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: Hamblin 2006, 48
[3]: (Singh 1997, 90) Sarva Daman Singh. 1997. Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Delhi.
[4]: (Foster 2016, 166) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[1] "Composite bows are known from both Mesopotamia and the Great Steppe from the III millennium BCE. The Scythian bow was different from the Mesopotamian one primarily in its overall dimensions - it was smaller so that it could be used from the horseback. At the same time, self bows were also in use, but because of their large size they were not suitable for use by horse riders." [2] "Ranged weapons were featured more prominently, with Akkadian soldiers typically depicted carrying bows, broad-bladed battle axes,7 and spears (Westenholz 1999: 65–6)." [3]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 93
[2]: Sergey A Nefedov, RAN Institute of History and Archaeology, Yekaterinburg, Russia. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. January 2018.
[3]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
"The first evidence of the composite bow appears on the victory stele of Naram Sin (2254-2218 B.C.E.)". [1] "The effective range of the simple bow varied from 50 to 100 yards. And the arrow shot by a simple bow was unable to penetrate leather or bronze armour. The effective range of the composite bows varied between 250 and 300 yards." [2] "The composite bow was a recurve bow made of wood, horn and tendons from oxen, carefully laminated together. These bows were probably invented by the nomads of the Eurasian steppe and brought into Sumer by the mercenary nomads." [2] "Composite bows are known from both Mesopotamia and the Great Steppe from the III millennium BCE." [3] "The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE." [2] Sargon "took advantage of new weapons, such as the modernized bow." [4] "Ranged weapons were featured more prominently, with Akkadian soldiers typically depicted carrying bows, broad-bladed battle axes,7 and spears (Westenholz 1999: 65–6)." [5]
[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 28) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
[2]: (Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.
[3]: Sergey A Nefedov, RAN Institute of History and Archaeology, Yekaterinburg, Russia. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. January 2018.
[4]: (Baizerman 2015) Baizerman, Michael. 2015. Dawn and Sunset: A Tale of the Oldest Cities in the Near East. AuthorHouse.
[5]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
"It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [1] Present. [2] Maceheads [3]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: Hamblin 2006, 88
[3]: Hamblin 2006, 74
"It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [1] Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed): In Sumer the first swords appeared about c3000 BCE but until c2000 BCE their use were restricted because the blade often became detached from the handle. The sickle-sword of c2500 BCE was cast whole but it was unable to break armour so the battle axe was preferred. [2] Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: "Each girded with a sword belt, the strength of battle, they parade before her, holy Inana." [3]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: (Gabriel and Metz 1991, 63) Richard A Gabriel. Karen S Metz. 1991. The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. Greenwood Press. Westport.
[3]: A šir-namursaĝa to Ninsiana for Iddin-Dagan (Iddin-Dagan A): c.2.5.3.1. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.
"It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [1] Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed): In Sumer the first swords appeared about c3000 BCE but until c2000 BCE their use were restricted because the blade often became detached from the handle. The sickle-sword of c2500 BCE was cast whole but it was unable to break armour so the battle axe was preferred. [2] Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: "Each girded with a sword belt, the strength of battle, they parade before her, holy Inana." [3]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: (Gabriel and Metz 1991, 63) Richard A Gabriel. Karen S Metz. 1991. The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. Greenwood Press. Westport.
[3]: A šir-namursaĝa to Ninsiana for Iddin-Dagan (Iddin-Dagan A): c.2.5.3.1. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.
[1] Hand-held spears. [2] Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed to confirm it applies to this polity): "Unlike other areas of the world where the spear developed into a thrown weapon, in the Middle East it remained primarily a stabbing weapon." [3] "Ranged weapons were featured more prominently, with Akkadian soldiers typically depicted carrying bows, broad-bladed battle axes,7 and spears (Westenholz 1999: 65–6)." [4]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 88
[2]: (Foster 2016, 166) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Gabriel and Metz 1991, 59) Richard A Gabriel. Karen S Metz. 1991. The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. Greenwood Press. Westport.
[4]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
"It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[1] "It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [2]
[1]: Hamblin 2006, 88
[2]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
"It was not until iron came into widespread use in the early first millennium that swords in particular and iron weapons in general began to replace the more expensive bronze spears, arrowheads, axes, and daggers of earlier times." [1] axes. [2] "Ranged weapons were featured more prominently, with Akkadian soldiers typically depicted carrying bows, broad-bladed battle axes,7 and spears (Westenholz 1999: 65–6)." [3]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 190) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: (Foster 2016, 166) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
[3]: (Stefanski, Arthur. 2008. “The Material Culture of Early Dynastic Akkadian Period Conflict: Copper and Bronze Melee Weapons from Khafajah.” The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies. 13: 15)
Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed to confirm it applies to this polity): "During the Bronze Age the standard mechanism of transport was the donkey (Egypt) or the solid-wheeled cart drawn by the onager (Sumer)." [1] Donkey was present but it seems was not the preferred pack animal.
[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 7) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed to confirm it applies to this polity): "The first recorded instance of body armor is found on the Stele of Vultures in ancient Sumer, which shows Eannatum’s soldiers wearing leather cloaks on which are sewn spined metal disks. The disks do not appear to be arranged in any order, and we do not know if the disks were made of copper or bronze. By 2100 BCE the victory stele of Naram Sin appears to show plate armor, and it is likely that plate armor had been in wide use for a few hundred years. Plate armor was constructed of thin bronze plates sewn to a leather shirt or jerkin." [1]
[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 21) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
In the Stele of the Vultures, soldiers are "dressed in sheepskin kilts, with some type of sash (leather or colored cloth?) over their left shoulders. ’King Eannatum himself’ leads the army wearing a thick sheepskin kilt and long sheepskin robe". [1]
[1]: (Hamblin 2006: 56-57) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4WM3RBTD.
Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed to confirm it applies to this polity): Earliest known helmet dates to 2500 BCE in Sumer. After this time use of helmets became widespread. [1] Opinion of a military historian (a specialist opinion on this is needed to confirm it applies to this polity): The example from Sumer was "a cap of hammered copper" fitted onto a leather cap. [1] Present. [2] On Naram-Sin’s Victory Stele soldiers have no armour other than helmets. [3]
[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 22) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
[2]: Hamblin 2006, 87
[3]: (Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.
In the Stele of the Vultures, soldiers are "dressed in sheepskin kilts, with some type of sash (leather or colored cloth?) over their left shoulders. ’King Eannatum himself’ leads the army wearing a thick sheepskin kilt and long sheepskin robe". [1]
[1]: (Hamblin 2006: 56-57) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4WM3RBTD.