The Rashtrakuta Empire extended over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Telangana, the state of Maharashtra minus its eastern region (Nagpur), the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and South Gujarat.
[1]
It could be said to have started in 753 CE, when Dantidurga, a rebellious provincial ruler, defeated his imperial overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami, in battle; however, Dantidurga had already begun to annex territories some time before this date.
[2]
The empire collapsed around 973, when, weakened by a Pallava raid and an inept king, it was unable to quash the rebellion of one of its feudatories, Tailapa II, who took the capital. Subsequently, a number of other feudatories declared independence from Rashtrakuta rule. Eventually, most of them were brought under control by the newly re-established Chalukyas.
[3]
The Rashtrakutas rapidly became undisputed rulers of the Deccan Plateau, and organized several successful expeditions in Northern India, even securing, for a time, the long-contested region of Kanauj (under Indra III). However, none of the territorial gains made during these expeditions could be held for more than a short period, and it appears that the main aim of the expeditions was not so much to extend Rashtrakuta rule as to advertise its military might and increase its prestige.
[4]
Under the long and relatively peaceful reign of Amoghavarsa I or Nrpatunga (814-878 CE), literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built.
[5]
Population and political organization
The Rashtrakuta emperor was the head of the civil, military and judicial administration.
[6]
However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy.
[7]
No overall population estimates could be found in the literature. The capital, Malkhed or Manyakheta, may have had around 100,000 inhabitants,
[8]
However, estimates are made difficult by the fact that the capital was destroyed by Chola armies in the 10th century CE, and what was left was subsequently destroyed by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Today, the Rashtrakuta capital is little more than a village. Not only that, but what little information exists about the city’s heyday appears to be strongly influenced by Jain tradition, which may be biased, considering that Malkhed used to be a major centre for the religion.
[9]
[1]: (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana.
[2]: (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications.
[3]: (Basavaraja 1984, 82-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications.
[4]: (Basavaraja 1984, 62-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications.
[5]: (Madan 1990, 120-22) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman.
[6]: (Madan 1990, 193) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman.
[7]: (Madan 1990, 192) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman.
[8]: Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication.
[9]: (Mishra 1992, 208) Jayashri Mishra. 1992. Social and Economic Conditions under the Imperial Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Commonwealth.
| none |
| Chalukyas of Kalyani |
| elite migration |
| Succeeding: Chalukyas of Kalyani (in_kalyani_chalukya_emp) [continuity] | |
| Preceding: Chalukyas of Badami (in_badami_chalukya_emp) [elite replacement] |
| loose |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Year Range | Rashtrakuta Empire (in_rashtrakuta_emp) was in: |
|---|---|
| (757 CE 780 CE) | Deccan |
| (780 CE 809 CE) | Middle Ganga Deccan |
| (809 CE 973 CE) | Deccan |
Also known as Manyakheta, probably established as capital during the reign of Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I (800-878 CE). There is much scholarly debate regarding which city or cities served as capitals to the Empire before Malkhed: candidates include Latur, Mayurakhindi, Ellora, and Manpur
[1]
.
[1]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), pp. 199-205
The reign of Amoghavarsa I (also known as Nrpatunga) was long and relatively peaceful. Literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built. Of the three main religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism), the Emperor favoured Jainism particularly, but, like all other Rashtrakuta rulers, Amoghavarsa I was tolerant and financially generous towards all faiths
[1]
.
[1]: A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 120-122
The Rashtrakuta Empire begins with the first territorial annexations of the dynasty’s founder, Dantidurga’s, as well as his military success against his feudal overlords, the Chalukyas. The Empire fell when the Chalukya dynasty managed to re-establish their supremacy in the region [1] .
[1]: K.R. Basavaraja, History and Culture of Karnataka (1984), pp. 62-83
In the first half of the eighth century, the Chalukyas ruled over Western and Central India. However, in the ’40s and early ’50s of that century, they found themselves in a position of weakness, due to the death of their leader, Vikramaditya II, as well as prolonged conflict with Arabs and the Pallavas to the North. One of their feudatories to the South, Dantidurga, exploited this moment of weakness to annex several territories to his own rule. By the time he had secured dominion over Madhya Pradesh and Central and Southern Gujarat, the Chalukyas declared war against him, but were defeated in battle in 753 CE. This is the year when the Rashtrakuta Empire is said to have started, with Dantidurga as its first ruler. Once the Chalukyas were definitively overthrown by Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I, the Rashtrakutas’ military and diplomatic endeavours focused mostly on two objectives: securing control over Southern India, particularly the Deccan Plateau, and organising military expeditions to the North. [1]
[1]: K.R. Basavaraja, History and Culture of Karnataka (1984), pp. 62-83
In the first half of the eighth century, the Chalukyas ruled over Western and Central India. However, in the ’40s and early ’50s of that century, they found themselves in a position of weakness, due to the death of their leader, Vikramaditya II, as well as prolonged conflict with Arabs and the Pallavas to the North. One of their feudatories to the South, Dantidurga, exploited this moment of weakness to annex several territories to his own rule. By the time he had secured dominion over Madhya Pradesh and Central and Southern Gujarat, the Chalukyas declared war against him, but were defeated in battle in 753 CE. This is the year when the Rashtrakuta Empire is said to have started, with Dantidurga as its first ruler. Once the Chalukyas were definitively overthrown by Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I, the Rashtrakutas’ military and diplomatic endeavours focused mostly on two objectives: securing control over Southern India, particularly the Deccan Plateau, and organising military expeditions to the North. [1]
[1]: K.R. Basavaraja, History and Culture of Karnataka (1984), pp. 62-83
The Emperor was "the source of all power and the head of the civil, military as well as judicial administration" [1] . However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and "feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed almost complete autonomy" [2] .
[1]: A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 193
[2]: A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 192
[1]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 19
Inhabitants [1] . Capital of Malkhed or Manyakheta. However, estimates are made difficult by the fact that the capital was destroyed by Chola armies in the tenth century CE, and what was left was subsequently destroyed by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Today, the Rashtrakuta capital is little more than a village. Not only that, but what little information exists on the city’s heyday appears to be strongly influenced by Jain tradition, which may be biased, considering that Malkhed used to be a major centre for the religion [2] .
[1]: Chase-Dunn spreadsheet (2001)
[2]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), pp. 208
in squared kilometers. [1] . The area is the sum of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Telangana, the state of Maharashtra minus its eastern region (Nagpur), the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and South Gujarat. This estimate is approximate.
[1]: Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980)
People.By 200 BC 30 million on the Indian Subcontinent, 20 million (40%) in Ganges basin. "The next fifteen hundred years consolidated without significantly altering this pattern." [1] McEvedy and Jones estimated for Pakistan, India and Bangladesh 62m for 800 CE, 69.5m for 900 CE. Estimate made using territory estimate, assuming roughly even distribution of people
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 182-185) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
levels.
Nowhere is a settlement hierarchy explicitly described, but it was probably roughly something like the following:
1. CapitalThe Emperor’s place of residence and the place from which he administered the empire, as inferred from
[1]
.
2. Provincial centresInferred from the fact that the Empire was divided into provincial administrative units, each with its own ruling administrators
[2]
.
3. VillagesThe smallest administrative unit mentioned by sources, e.g.
[3]
.
[1]: S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 377
[2]: A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), pp. 359-361
[3]: A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), pp. 361
levels.
_Hinduism_
There are no official priestly hierarchies in Hinduism
[1]
. However, several sources allude to the importance, at least for some branches of the religion, of the relationship between student and teacher or guru (e.g.
[2]
), which suggests that perhaps it would not be entirely inappropriate to say that there is indeed a Hindu religious hierarchy, and that it is composed of two levels.
_Jainism_
NOTE: I have found two equally authoritative sources on Jain hierarchy:
(1)
[3]
1. Arihants (ones who have conquered their inner enemies)2. Siddhas (Liberated Ones)3. Acharyas (who head the Order)4. Upadhyays (who teach the message)5. Sadhus (Monks/Seekers)
(2)
[4]
1. Guru (teacher)2. Monks
2. Male figure (not specified by author whether a monk) in charge of nuns3. Pravartini or ganini (aides to the male figure in charge of nuns)4. Nuns
_Buddhism_
"Buddhist monastic communities replaced the caste system with one based on year of ordination. Previously ordained monks enjoyed rights and privileges higher in status than monks ordained later, and monks were categorically of higher status and privilege than nuns. In effect seniority and gender provided criteria for social status and increased access to ’pure’ teachings and exemption from ’impure’ duties."
[5]
.
[1]: http://ezinearticles.com/?Religious-Hierarchy-in-Hinduism&id=1864556
[2]: G. Flood, Introduction, in G. Flood (ed), The Blackwell Comapnion to Hinduism (2003), p. 4
[3]: Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp 312-319
[4]: M. Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka (2006), pp. 269-276
[5]: P. Nietupsky, Hygiene: Buddhist Perspective, in W.M. Johnson, Encyclopedia of Monasticism (2000), p. 628
levels.
1. Emperor
NOTE: Could not find source that explicitly stated that the Emperor was head of the army, but it seems likely, based on analogy with preceding and succeeding polities, e.g. the Chalukyas
[1]
.
2. Dandanayaka or Mahadandanayaka
[2]
3. Subordinate officers to the Dandanayaka or Mahadandanayaka
[2]
4. Subordinate officers to the subordinates to the Dandanayaka or Mahadandanayaka
[2]
- presumably more than one level5. SoldiersThe bulk of the Rashtrakuta army was made up infantry, cavalry, and elephants
[2]
.
[1]: D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 267
[2]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
levels.
1. Emperor
_Court_
2. Yuvaraja (Crown Prince)
"The Yuvaraja usually stayed at the capital, helping the king in the discharge of administrative duties and occasionally accompanying the king in military expeditions"
[1]
.
2. Council of Ministers
"[T]o judge from the contemporary evidence, it is clear that the ministry must have consisted of the prime minister, the foreign minister, the revenue minister, the treasurer, the chief justice, the commander-in-chief, and the Purohita or royal chaplain"
[2]
_Provincial Government_
2. RashtrapatisIn charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of rashtras, made up of the equivalent of four or five modern-day Indian districts
[3]
.
3. VishayapatisIn charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of vishayas, the equivalent of modern-day Indian districts
[3]
.
3. Nadgavundas or DesagramakutasHereditary revenue officers in charge of aiding the Vishayapatis and Bhogapatis with the fiscal administration of their territories
[3]
.
4. BohgapatisIn charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of "tashils"
[3]
, presumably the equivalent of modern Indian tehsils or sub-districts.
5. Village headmenResponsible for maintaining law and order in villages and for the "collection of the village revenues and their payment into the royal treasury and granaries
[4]
.
6. Village accountantsAids to the village headmen
[3]
.
7. Sub-accountants
[5]
.
6. Village assemblies20-30 elected persons divided into sub-committees, each sub-committee dedicated "to a specific department like the village tank, the village temple, roads. The village assembly also received deposits on trust endowments from private individuals to be utilised for specific public works. Civil suits were decided by the village councils which had also jurisdiction over petty criminal cases"
[5]
.
[1]: S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 377
[2]: A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 358
[3]: A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360
[4]: A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 361
[5]: S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 378
Hinduism had its representatives in Brahmanas [1] , Jainism and Buddhism in monks [2] [3] .
[1]: L. Rocher, The Dharmasastras, in G. Flood (ed), The Balckwell Companion to Hinduism (2003), p. 103
[2]: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/worship/ministry.shtml
[3]: L. Aldritt, Buddhism (2009), p. 12
"The imperial army was commanded by a dandanayaka or mahadandanayaka. Their subordinates must have also had similar dandanayakas under them, as their administration was more or less akin to that of their superiors" [1]
[1]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
Professions mentioned by sources include washermen, shoemakers, weavers, jugglers, basket makers, shield makers, sailors, fishers, hunters, servants, farmers, cattle herders, soldiers, teachers, traders, builders, artists [Mishra 1992, pp. 35-37]
In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.
“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.
“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.
“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”
[1]
[1]: (Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. "Lawyers" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library
unknown
Though no source explicitly says this, based on analogy with the Chalukyas [1] , it seems likely that the Rashtrakutas used Smirtis and dharmashastras as legal codes. The Smriti, or Manu-smriti, is a collection of texts prescribing correct behaviour, including a section explicitly devoted to "the law of kings" [2] , while the dharmashastras are a collection of more explicitly legal texts [3]
[1]: D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230
[2]: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti
[3]: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra
unknown. An inscription at Kandahar describes centres for the free distribution of water in the summer [Mishra 1992, p. 101] -- where did the centres get the water? infrastructure like channels or pipes (= present) or wells (= absent)?
NOTE: not mentioned explicitly by any source, but seems extremely likely, since the Rashtrakutas possessed most of India’s West coast.
Inferred from the fact that fiction is not mentioned by sources among the many, many literary achievements of Rashtrakuta intellectuals.
No Rashtrakuta coins have been found, but many contemporary documents describe or mention the Empire’s currency. Arab traveller Sulaiman, for example writes that the Rashtrakutas had "silver coins called Tatriya coins which were one and a half times heavier than the Arab coins" [1] . However, some experts take the absence of tangible coins in the archaeological record to mean that the Rashtrakutas never did issue their own currency [2]
[1]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 20
[2]: A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 198
No Rashtrakuta coins have been found, but many contemporary documents describe or mention the Empire’s currency. Arab traveller Sulaiman, for example writes that the Rashtrakutas had "silver coins called Tatriya coins which were one and a half times heavier than the Arab coins" [1] . However, some experts take the absence of tangible coins in the archaeological record to mean that the Rashtrakutas never did issue their own currency [2]
[1]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 20
[2]: A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 198
No persuasive evidence could be found, in the literature consulted, for the existence of a postal service of any kind in India, between the end of the Mauryan period and the fourteenth century, when Ibn Battuta visited the Delhi Sultanate and described its communication services. However, it is entirely possible that such systems existed in at least some polities, especially the larger ones.
unknown
No persuasive evidence could be found, in the literature consulted, for the existence of a postal service of any kind in India, between the end of the Mauryan period and the fourteenth century, when Ibn Battuta visited the Delhi Sultanate and described its communication services. However, it is entirely possible that such systems existed in at least some polities, especially the larger ones.
No persuasive evidence could be found, in the literature consulted, for the existence of a postal service of any kind in India, between the end of the Mauryan period and the fourteenth century, when Ibn Battuta visited the Delhi Sultanate and described its communication services. However, it is entirely possible that such systems existed in at least some polities, especially the larger ones.
"The first part Manya would be written Manne in Kanarese and could be Mannai in Tamil. This is described as of unapproachable strength and that is the strength of the fortress that was built by the Rashtrakutas and in building the walls of which the Eastern Chalukyas were compelled to assist after defeat." [1] "Amoghavarsha developed the city of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district) and its fortifications and made it the famous capital." [2]
[1]: (? 1922, 321) ? . 1922. Journal of Indian History. Volume 2. University of Kerala.
[2]: (Hosamani 2019, 18) Ratnakar D Hosamani. 2019. A Study of Historical Monuments in Bidar District (1st Century-17th Century CE). Laxmi Book Publication. Solapur.
Commenting on Jean Deloche’s ’Studies on Fortification in India’ a book reviewer says that fort construction "with long-term building and modification programs ... became the focal point for local populations as well as for their leaders" and often were "placed at points on the landscape that already were natural strongholds and places of ritual devolution". [1] The capital of Malkhed was protected on three sides by rivers, and on the fourth side by a moat [2] .
[1]: (Smith 2010, 273) Monica L Smith. January 2010. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 130.2. Studies on Fortification in India. Collection Indologie, vol. 104. Four Forts of the Deccan vol. 111. Senji (Gingee): A Fortified City in the Tamil Country. vol. 101 by Jean Deloche.
[2]: Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), p. 206
"Till date, the best study of the evolution of fortifications in India from the Indus Valley Civilization till the rise of British power, remains Deloche’s monograph on fortification in India. Deloche notes that between the third and fourteenth centuries, the Hindu rulers constructed complex gateways, towers and thicker walls with earthen embankments in order to make their durgas (forts) impregnable." [1] Deloche’s studies on Indian fortifications are in French. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written after 200 BCE, mentions ramparts constructed with earth and moats. [2]
[1]: (Roy 2011, 123) Kaushik Roy. Historiographical Survey of the Writings on Indian Military History. Sabyasachi Bhattacharya. ed. 2011. Approaches to History: Essays in Indian Historiography. Primus Books. Delhi.
[2]: (Olivelle 2016, 103) Patrick Olivelle trans. 2016. King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
"(a) The Fort is said to have been originally built by Soma- deva, the Raja of Qandhar, and subsequently added to by Krishna III, the Rashtrakuta Raja of Malkhed, who is styled " Lord of Qandharpura ". It is surrounded by a ditch and a ..." [1]
[1]: (? 1953, 20) ?. 1953. Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad State. Government Press.
Indian iron smiths invented the ’wootz’ method of steel creation between 550-450 BCE. The Greek physician Ctesias of Cnidus commented on an Indian steel sword in the possession of Artaxerxes II of Persia (c400 BCE). [1]
[1]: (Singh 1997, 102) Sarva Daman Singh. 1997. Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Delhi.
Indian iron smiths invented the ’wootz’ method of steel creation between 550-450 BCE. The Greek physician Ctesias of Cnidus commented on an Indian steel sword in the possession of Artaxerxes II of Persia (c400 BCE). [1]
[1]: (Singh 1997, 102) Sarva Daman Singh. 1997. Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Delhi.
Inferred from the presence of higher metals. Likely used primarily for ornamental reasons.
’Usually replaced by steel but likely used for ornamental reasons and for handles if not for bladed weapons.
Ancient Indian armies had siege engines that could "fling stones and lead balls wrapped up in burning materials. The Mahabharata mentions an Asma-yantra (a stone-throwing machine) in the battle with Jarasandha and we have further records that such engines were used in later periods to set enemy fortifications alight and that ’liquid fires’ containing naphtha were in use in ancient India." [1]
[1]: (Forbes 1959, 88-89) Robert James Forbes. 1959. More studies in early petroleum history. Brill Archive.
In the hot Monsoon climate of India the composite bow decomposed rapidly so Ancient Indians made bows out of Wootz steel. These were "considerably more rigid than their composite bretheren, meaning they were also less powerful. But they were reliable and predictable, and could be stored away in munitions vaults without worry of decomposition." [1] "The Hindus used bows made of cane or bamboos which were inferior in range, accuracy and penetrative power when compared to the composite bows." [2] Composite bow came to India with the Kushanas but "after the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the use of composite bows died out in India." [2]
[1]: (O’Bryan 2013, 54) A History of Weapons: Crossbows, Caltrops, Catapults & Lots of Other Things that Can Seriously Mess You Up. Chronicle Books LLC. San Francisco.
[2]: (Roy 2011, 122) Kaushik Roy. Historiographical Survey of the Writings on Indian Military History. Sabyasachi Bhattacharya. ed. 2011. Approaches to History: Essays in Indian Historiography. Primus Books. Delhi.
"The age of Turkish rule in India can be divided into two periods, the Afghan period from the 1200s to the 1500s and the Mughal period from the 1500s to the 1800s. Firearms arrived in India during the Afghan period and began to change the conduct of warfare in the Mughal period." [1]
[1]: (Chase 2003, p. 129)
"The age of Turkish rule in India can be divided into two periods, the Afghan period from the 1200s to the 1500s and the Mughal period from the 1500s to the 1800s. Firearms arrived in India during the Afghan period and began to change the conduct of warfare in the Mughal period." [1]
[1]: (Chase 2003, p. 129)
"The hand crossbow was usd on Indian battlefields probably from the third century A.D. It was mainly used as an infantry weapon and occasionally as a cavalry weapon. A Sanskrit inscription at Avanthipuram, in South India, reads: ’... Of him who has the name of Ananta impelled with speed and skillfully discharged from the machines of his bow fitted with the well stretched string....’ Obviously, the machine referred to was a hand crossbow." [1]
[1]: (Phillips 2016) Henry Pratap Phillips. 2016. The History and Chronology of Gunpowder and Gunpowder Weapons (c.1000 to 1850). Notion Press.
"The Hindus used bows made of cane or bamboos which were inferior in range, accuracy and penetrative power when compared to the composite bows." [1] Composite bow came to India with the Kushanas but "after the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the use of composite bows died out in India." [1]
[1]: (Roy 2011, 122) Kaushik Roy. Historiographical Survey of the Writings on Indian Military History. Sabyasachi Bhattacharya. ed. 2011. Approaches to History: Essays in Indian Historiography. Primus Books. Delhi.
The Agni-purana (composed perhaps 600-1000 CE?) mentions weapons training with the sword, club and lasso. [1] Potent force by the fourth century BCE. [2] "There was no significant change in the weaponry of the Indian army from ancient to classical times; in fact, according to Kosambi, there was a decline in the standard of arms. Indian soldiers were mostly very poorly equipped, noted Marco Polo." [3]
[1]: (Eraly 2011, 167) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
[2]: (Eraly 2011, 165) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
[3]: (Eraly 2011, 169) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
"Next to the infantry, cavalry and elephants occupy the place of pride in the military organization". [1] "In the classical age, Indian armies were still organized, as they had been a thousand years earlier, into four divisions: infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants." [2] However, cavalry was a less significant force for the Rashtrakuta army which "consisted mainly of infantry, for, as Al Masudi noted, ’the seat of this government was among the mountains,’ and it was impossible to deploy cavalry, elephants or chariots there.’ [2]
[1]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
[2]: (Eraly 2011, 163) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
"Next to the infantry, cavalry and elephants occupy the place of pride in the military organization". [1] "In the classical age, Indian armies were still organized, as they had been a thousand years earlier, into four divisions: infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants." [2] However, elephants were a less significant force for the Rashtrakuta army which "consisted mainly of infantry, for, as Al Masudi noted, ’the seat of this government was among the mountains,’ and it was impossible to deploy cavalry, elephants or chariots there.’ [2] "But there can be little doubt that war-elephants were not used in the same numbers under the Islamic dynasties of India as they were in the early medieval period and before. We have seen that the Arabic sources described the most important ninth- and tenth-century Hindu dynasties as equipped with tens of thousands or more elephants of various kinds. Although it is unlikely that these numbers indicated war-elephants in a state of readiness - they probably included the guessed number of untamed and half-tamed ones -, and although some of the figures are contradictory, they are larger than those of later times." [3]
[1]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
[2]: (Eraly 2011, 163) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
[3]: (Wink 1997, 102-103) Andre Wink. 1997. Al-Hind. The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Volume II. The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest 11th-13th Centuries. BRILL. Leiden.
In ancient India the buffalo, bullock, yak, goat, camel, elephant, horse, ass and the mule were all used for transport [1] [2] in different regions according to local conditions. [2]
[1]: (Mishra 1987, 83) Kamal Kishore Mishra. 1987. Police Administration in Ancient India. Mittal Publications. Delhi.
[2]: Prakash Charan Prasad. 1977. Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications. New Delhi.
Absent could be inferred from the fact that only the use of horses and elephants is mentioned in Ramachandra Murthy’s overview of Rashtrakuta military organisation [1] .
[1]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
Inferred from the fact that only the use of horses and elephants is mentioned in Ramachandra Murthy’s overview of Rashtrakuta military organisation. [1]
[1]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written after 200 BCE, mentions a leather shield. [1] "The popular weapons of warfare seem to be the sword, the trident or spear, the javelin, the battleaxe, the shield, etc." [2]
[1]: (Olivelle 2016, 142-143) Patrick Olivelle trans. 2016. King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: N.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Military Administration of the Rashtrakutas in the Telugu Country, in B.R. Gopal, The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed (1994), p. 116
Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written after 200 BCE, mentions "dense structures made of the skin, hooves, and horns/tusks of the river dolphin, rhinocerous, Dhenuka, and cattle" used as armor. [1]
[1]: (Olivelle 2016, 142-143) Patrick Olivelle trans. 2016. King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Gupta period soldiers who could afford to do so and were willing to bear the heat (or for night operations?) wore chain mail. [1] Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written after 200 BCE, mentions s metal coat of mail. [2]
[1]: (Rowell 2015 89) Rebecca Rowell. 2015. Ancient India. Abdo Publishing. Minneapolis.
[2]: (Olivelle 2016, 142-143) Patrick Olivelle trans. 2016. King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
’Chalukyas, Pallavas and the Cholas are noted for their naval forces." [1] It can be inferred that no other state had a significant naval force although some of them may have had a smaller navy. The Rashtrakuta kingdom had a lengthy coastline and may have had a small navy.
[1]: (Eraly 2011, 163) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.