The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.
[1]
Louis the German, one of Charlemagne’s grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.
[2]
The Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance’s intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.
[1]
However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom’s unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.
[1]
[1]: Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ
[2]: Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.” Zotero link: HHAVIEKX
| de_east_francia nominal allegiance to fr_carolingian_emp_2 |
| Latin Christendom |
| Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty |
| Succeeding: Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty (de_empire_1) [continuity] |
| loose | 842 CE 880 CE |
| confederated state | 880 CE 911 CE |
| Year Range | East Francia (de_east_francia) was in: |
|---|
While there was no official capital, several cities served as important centers for royal courts and administrative activities during different periods, including:
Aachen: Charlemagne’s preferred residence and a significant center during the Carolingian period. It remained an important city in East Francia.
Regensburg: Another important city that served as a frequent residence for rulers of East Francia and was a significant political and cultural center.
Frankfurt: Often used for imperial assemblies and elections, Frankfurt was a key city in the political life of East Francia.
[1]
[1]: Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ
During Arnulf of Carinthia’s reign, East Francia saw effective military leadership, notably in repelling Viking invasions and asserting dominance over Moravia. Arnulf’s successful campaigns and his efforts to consolidate royal authority. [1]
[1]: Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ
The central government exerted some control over military matters and international relations, but regional rulers enjoyed significant autonomy in governing their territories. This period saw the Carolingian empire’s gradual fragmentation, where loyalty to the central authority was often nominal, and regional rulers held the real power in their lands. [1]
[1]: Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ
East Francia moved towards a more "confederated state", particularly during the reign of Arnulf of Carinthia. While regional dukes and nobles still held considerable power, there was a concerted effort by the central authority to assert greater control over the realm. This period saw the establishment of more hereditary rule and the beginnings of the feudal system, where the central authority recognized the hereditary rights of regional lords in exchange for military and political support. The central government had some influence over regional taxation and governance, but regions enjoyed a high degree of autonomy. [1]
[1]: Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ
Ratisbon (Regensburg) rose to the rank of main city of Central Europe. Its population passed from about 23,000 in 800 to 40,000 in 1000. [Tellier 2019, p. 191]
East Francia was established by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, dividing the Carolingian Empire into three parts. East Francia comprised territories that roughly correspond to modern-day Germany, Austria, parts of Switzerland, and small portions of neighboring regions like the Low Countries and France. [Costambeys_Innes_MacLean 2011]
Population estimates for the year 1000 for Germany and Scandinavia [Cipolla 1978, p. 19], [webpage_Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval...]
Based on the territory of East Francia, the furthest provincial centers from Regensburg were likely: Bremen in the Duchy of Saxony (Northwest): Approximately 800–850 km from Regensburg. The most direct routes would have used Roman road remnants, which were still in use, along with early medieval trade and military paths. [Wickham 2010]
Level 1: Large Cities (~10,000–15,000 inhabitants)
Examples: Regensburg, Mainz, Cologne
Level 2: Cities (~5,000–10,000 inhabitants)
Examples: Frankfurt, Metz, Worms
Level 3: Large Towns (~2,000–5,000 inhabitants)
Examples: Speyer, Passau, Constance
Level 4: Towns (~500–2,000 inhabitants)
Examples: Small fortified settlements or market towns scattered across Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia.
Level 5: Villages (~100–500 inhabitants)
Examples: Rural settlements tied to manorial estates.
Level 6: Hamlets (<100 inhabitants)
Examples: Isolated farmsteads or small clusters of homes. [Wickham 2010], [Russell 1972]
Level 1: The Pope
The Pope in Rome, as the supreme authority of the Catholic Church, influenced religious practices in East Francia.
Level 2: Archbishops
Leaders of archdioceses, the highest-ranking ecclesiastical figures within East Francia.
Level 3: Bishops
Leaders of dioceses, responsible for overseeing the clergy and managing church lands.
Level 4: Abbots and Priors
Heads of monasteries and abbeys, such as Fulda, Reichenau, and St. Gall.
Level 5: Parish Priests
Local clergy serving individual parishes. [Riché 1993], [Wickham 2010]
Level 1: The King
Declared wars, led armies in major campaigns, and oversaw military alliances and feudal obligations.
Level 2: Dukes and Regional Commanders
Dukes of major duchies (e.g., Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Lotharingia) served as military leaders for their respective regions.
Level 3: Bannerets and Subordinate Lords
Lesser nobles and counts, who commanded smaller contingents of knights and foot soldiers under the authority of their respective dukes or the king.
Level 4: Knights and Mounted Warriors
Professional soldiers or landed warriors, often equipped with horses and better weaponry.
Level 5: Infantry and Peasant Levies
The lowest level consisted of foot soldiers, typically drawn from the general population. [Riché 1993], [Wickham 2010]
Level 1: The King of East Francia
Examples: Louis the German, Arnulf of Carinthia, Conrad I.
Level 2: Regional Governors (Dukes)
Dukes governed the major duchies, such as Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, and Lotharingia.
Level 3: Counts
Collected taxes, administered local justice, and raised troops for regional or royal military campaigns.
Level 4: Local Administrators
Local officials, such as vassals, castellans, and judicial officers, served under counts.
Level 5: Village Heads (Local Leaders)
Village or manorial leaders acted as intermediaries between the general population and higher administrative levels. [Riché 1993]
The military was composed of feudal levies, knights, and peasant conscripts, none of whom served as full-time military professionals. [Reuter 1991]
Clergy, including bishops, abbots, monks, and parish priests, were professionally trained and lived exclusively for their religious roles. [Riché 1993]
Military leadership was held by feudal lords and knights, who served as part-time commanders based on their social status and landholding obligations rather than as full-time professionals. [Reuter 1991]
The administrative officials in East Francia, such as counts, dukes, and other feudal lords, were supported through land grants tied to their positions. These officials did not receive regular salaries from the state but were compensated through the revenues generated from their lands. [Reuter 1991]
The governance of East Francia relied heavily on a feudal and decentralized administrative system, with no evidence of specialized government buildings distinct from other types of structures. [Reuter 1991]
Appointments to administrative and military positions were predominantly based on heredity, noble lineage, and feudal loyalty. [Reuter 1991]
East Francia’s governance was based on the feudal system, where administrative duties were carried out by regional lords, dukes, and counts, who combined these tasks with military and judicial responsibilities. [Riché 1993], [Reuter 1991]
Appointments to administrative and military positions were predominantly based on heredity, noble lineage, and feudal loyalty. [Reuter 1991]
Legal proceedings in East Francia were primarily conducted by local lords, counts, or dukes, who acted as both administrators and judges. These figures were not specialized legal professionals but part of the feudal hierarchy. [Reuter 1991]
Legal proceedings in East Francia were primarily conducted by local lords, counts, or dukes, who acted as both administrators and judges [Reuter 1991]
East Francia inherited the Salic Law (Lex Salica) and other regional laws codified under the Carolingian Empire. These laws were originally written down in Latin and served as the basis for legal proceedings across the realm. [Reuter 1991]
Judicial proceedings were typically held in multi-purpose structures, such as manorial halls, noble residences, or public spaces (e.g., open fields or marketplaces), rather than in buildings exclusively dedicated to legal proceedings. [Reuter 1991]
Kings and regional rulers granted charters for markets, giving them a legal status and often ensuring that a portion of the revenues (e.g., tolls or fees) went to the crown or regional authorities. [Reuter 1991]
The Langetetal records (861, 884) suggest early water management, possibly including irrigation, though not definitively proven. This indicates irrigation might have existed in some form during this period. [Leibundgut_Vonderstraß_Leibundgut 2016]
Monasteries like Fulda and St. Gall managed significant agricultural estates and maintained food storage facilities for their communities and dependents. [Wickham 2010]
Systems such as wells, cisterns, and rudimentary conduits existed but were typically small-scale and regionally controlled. [Haasis-Berner_Mitteilungen_Der_Deutschen_Gesellschaft_Für_Archäologie_Des_Mittelalters_Und_Der_Neuzeit 2014]
Monasteries, such as Fulda and St. Gall, acted as central communal spaces, serving both religious and secular purposes for the local population. [Wickham 2010]
Monasteries such as St. Gall and Fulda maintained large-scale granaries for surplus storage, which supported both religious communities and local populations. [Reuter 1991]
The cathedral in Mainz and the abbey church at Fulda, which served as symbols of the Carolingian and Ottonian legacy. [Wickham 2010]
Monasteries, such as St. Gall and Fulda, housed significant libraries. These libraries contained religious texts, classical works, and administrative records. [Riché 1993]
Entertainment took the form of localized, religious, or feudal activities without dedicated venues. [Wickham 2010]
East Francia inherited remnants of the Roman road network, which connected major settlements and facilitated trade and military movement. [Wickham 2010]
The Fossa Carolina (Charlemagne’s Canal), an ambitious project started in the late 8th century to connect the Rhine and Danube river systems, is the most prominent example of canal construction in medieval Europe. While there is debate about whether it was fully completed or operational, recent studies suggest it was at least partially functional for a time. [webpage_Fossa Carolina / Karlsgraben –...], [Leitholdt_et_al 2012], [Schmidt_Werther_Zielhofer 2018]
Regensburg Bridge (Stone Bridge): Regensburg, had early wooden bridge built by Charlemagne that predated the stone bridge constructed in the 12th century. [book_Brücken in Deutschland für Straßen...]
Mining regions included: The Harz Mountains (silver and iron). The Alps and surrounding areas (salt extraction). The Bohemian Forest on the eastern frontier [Wickham 2010]
Monasteries and cathedrals often doubled as religious ceremonial centers [Wickham 2010]
Fulda Monastery: A prominent burial site for Carolingian nobility and clergy. [Riché 1993]
Annals of Fulda – Historical records of East Francia from the mid-9th century onward. [Reuter 2012]
The Latin script, a phonetic alphabetic writing system, was the dominant script in East Francia. It was used for administrative documents, religious texts, and legal records. [Reuter 1991]
Royal Seals: Kings used seals as symbols of legitimacy.
Ecclesiastical Seals: Monastic institutions and bishops also used seals to validate documents [Reuter 1991]
The writing systems used in East Francia during this period were phonetic, specifically the Latin alphabet. [Reuter 1991]
Tallies were used as mnemonic devices in East Francia for recording transactions, taxes, and dues. These were typically simple wooden sticks with notches representing amounts owed or paid. [Kuchenbuch 2002]
De Computo (Rabanus Maurus): Studied in monastic schools, focused on mathematical calculations for determining the date of Easter and other liturgical purposes. [webpage_Vollkommene Zahlen, Otfried Lieberknecht...]
Rabanus Maurus: Rabanus wrote extensively on theology, including commentaries and advice for religious life. [Kotzur_Wilhelmy_Bischöflisches_Dom-_und_Diözesanmuseum 2006]
De Institutione Clericorum (On the Education of Clerics) by Rabanus Maurus.
The work was regarded as a pedagogical law book and the first comprehensive theory of clerical education. Rabanus emphasized that love is essential for pastoral guidance, asserting that without true dedication, knowledge, wisdom, and moral integrity are unattainable. [Kotzur_Wilhelmy_Bischöflisches_Dom-_und_Diözesanmuseum 2006]
Rabanus Maurus (ca. 780–856): De Institutione Clericorum ("On the Training of Clerics") Focused on clerical education, combining moral philosophy, theology, and practical guidance for clergy. [Kotzur_Wilhelmy_Bischöflisches_Dom-_und_Diözesanmuseum 2006]
St.Gallen Abbey charters: A collection of charters and property records maintained by the Monastery of St. Gallen. It includes lists of land donations, tenant obligations, and feudal dues. [webpage_Stiftsbezirk St. Gallen - Digitised...], [webpage_e-chartae]
Annals of Fulda – Historical records of East Francia from the mid-9th century onward. [Reuter 2012]
Fulda Monastery Liturgical Calendar: Maintained by one of the most prominent monastic centers in East Francia, it included the feast days of saints, liturgical seasons, and significant Christian holidays. [Reuter 2012]
The primary medium of exchange in East Francia was coinage (e.g., silver deniers) and barter goods (articles), rather than unmanufactured tokens. [McCormick 2001]
Silver and gold were used as mediums of exchange and stores of value. These were often weighed and traded directly in transactions, particularly when coinage was scarce or unavailable. [McCormick 2001]
The economy of East Francia relied primarily on metal coinage (e.g., silver deniers), precious metals (silver and gold), and barter systems. There is no evidence of the use or production of paper currency during this period. [McCormick 2001]
The primary coin used in East Francia during this period was the silver denier (or penny), introduced during the Carolingian reforms under Charlemagne and continued by his successors, including Louis the German and his descendants. [McCormick 2001]
Grain Tithes: Records from monastic estates, such as those of the Abbey of Fulda, include grain payments as part of tenant obligations. [Reuter 2012]
Monasteries like Fulda maintained treasuries to store wealth in the form of liturgical items, gold, and silver. [Riché 1993]
The postal system in East Francia relied on messenger networks, particularly those associated with royal and ecclesiastical authorities, but there is no evidence of dedicated postal stations as specialized buildings during this period. [Wickham 2010]
Royal Couriers: The East Frankish kings employed full-time messengers, who carried orders, letters, and other communications across the kingdom. [Riché 1993]
From Regensburg to: Saxony Approximately 350–400 km, requiring 8–10 days on horseback. [Reuter 2012], [McCormick 2001]
East Francia inherited and adapted weight measurement systems from the Carolingian Empire, which were themselves influenced by Roman and early medieval practices. Commonly used weight units included: Libra (Pound): Derived from the Roman weight system, equivalent to approximately 327 grams. Solidus and Denarius: Used for weighing precious metals and coins in monetary transactions. Marc: A unit often used for weighing silver. [Riché 1993]