Home Region: Arabia (Southwest Asia)

Himyar I

270 CE 340 CE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 ye_himyar_1 / YeHmyr1

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

149 BCE 349 CE Axum I (et_aksum_emp_1) [continuity]

Succeeding Entity:

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General Description

In 115 BCE the Himyarites were a tribe from the southwestern highlands of Yemen. They formed, with Saba, the dual kingdom of Saba and Dhu-Raydan ^[1] ^[2] after the Roman attacks in 25 BCE emboldened the Himyarites who "siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime." ^[3] They used the royal title ’king of Saba and dhu-Raydan’ with Raydan later becoming known as Qataban. ^[4] Dhu-Raydan (Zafar), the Himyarite capital, was located in the highlands near modern Yarim. ^[5]
The Roman discovery of the Indian Ocean trade winds around 100 CE signaled the end of many great civilizations in South Arabia that used overland trade routes; ^[6] but the Himyarite state was initially an exception, and prospered. For a time the Himyarites were a subject tribe of the Romans ^[7] and they possessed colonies which seeded the Abyssinian Kingdom in Ethiopia. ^[8] The wealth of the Himyar state, similarly acquired as other local kingdoms from the trade of incense and spices, came from trading overseas routes. While during the second millennium CE Saba split from Himyar the Himyarites later benefited immensely at the expense of their rival kingdoms as the overland routes became increasingly less efficient and disrupted by warfare, especially in the third century CE, which involved Himyar, Saba, Hadramawt and Aksum.
The Himyarites had a much more centralized polity than Saba throughout the early first millennium ^[9] but could not hold back the Abyssinians who invaded and occupied the tihama (Red Sea littoral) from the 2nd century CE; the Ethiopians conquered the Himyarite capital in 240 CE, but agreeing an alliance with Himyar withdraw from the Arabian peninsular ^[10] in about 270 CE. ^[11] The Himyar-Abyssinain alliance or vassalage ended about 298 CE. ^[12] Himyar "reached the peak of its power in the third century as a result of a successful series of wars against the local heathen tribes and the African realm of Ethiopia." ^[13] Between 270-280 CE the Sabaean Kingdom was annexed by the Himyarites. ^[10] Hadramawt was conquered by 300 CE. ^[14] Throughout this period the profits from the incense trade were in a progressive decline as the rise of Christianity in the west had reduced demand for a product that was most commonly used in pagan rituals. When in 395 CE the Roman emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official state religion of the Roman Empire the trade ceased entirely. ^[15]
At this same time Himyarites also were undergoing their own seismic shift in religious belief system - rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines by the late 4th century CE. ^[16] "There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter." ^[17] "From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism" and the Jewish faith became "the dominant religion" in South Arabia. ^[18] In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai’a. ^[19] A list of Himyarite’s known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre’am (from 270 CE); ’Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha’min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As’as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi’il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan (’Judaized’ 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash’ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE). ^[20] ^[19] The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE. ^[20]
Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century ^[21] when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and "complained that he found a great number of Jews". ^[17] By 350 CE Christian communities were becoming established and over the next 100 years, "missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity". ^[15] It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) "which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San’a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism." ^[22] However, Christians appear to have been repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: "in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran". ^[23] Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule. ^[14]
An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed "the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished ’through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,’ and phrases such as ’the owner of the sky and earth,’ and the expression ’the Merciful’ also were used. ^[17] It has been suggested that the Himyarite "profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians" ^[17] so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran. ^[19]
As trade revenues flatlined, the increasing persecution and then massacre of Christians by king Dhu Nuwas ^[6] lead to a foreign intervention. The Byzantine Empire in alliance with the Aksumite Kingdom invaded the Himyarite kingdom and Dhu Nuwas was removed. Himyar and the Red Sea Coast was thereafter ruled directly by the Christian Ethiopians until the Persian conquest in 570 CE, interrupted by the Christian Ethiopian governor-general Abraha’s declaration of independence between 550-553 CE. ^[24]

[1]: (Burrows 2010, 140) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.

[2]: (Bryce 2009, 602) Trevor Bryce. 2009. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.

[4]: (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.

[5]: (Burrows 2010, 161) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.

[6]: (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham.

[7]: (Friedman 2006, 105) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.

[8]: (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.

[9]: (Korotayev 1996, 47) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.

[10]: (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara

[11]: (Orlin et al. 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York.

[12]: (Syvanne 2015, 133) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley.

[13]: (285) Norman Roth ed. 2016. Routledge Revivals: Medieval Jewish Civilization (2003): An Encyclopedia. Routledge.

[14]: (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.

[15]: (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York.

[16]: (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.

[17]: (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.

[18]: (Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden.

[19]: (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden.

[20]: (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.

[21]: (Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden.

[22]: (Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.

[23]: (Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.

[24]: (Caton 2013, 47) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

3 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Peak Years

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Suprapolity Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

1 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

1 Language

Religion

1 Religious Tradition

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Population of the Largest Settlement

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

1 Occupational Complexity

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

2 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

1 Long Wall

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Sling

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Leather Cloth

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Himyar I (ye_himyar_1) was in:
(270 CE 340 CE)	Yemeni Coastal Plain

Home NGA: Yemeni Coastal Plain

General Variables

Identity and Location Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	38 P	270 CE 340 CE
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Original Name	Himyar - Pagan Period	270 CE 340 CE
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Capital	Zarfar	270 CE 340 CE
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Alternative Name	Himyar - pagan period	270 CE 340 CE
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Alternative Name	Himyarites	270 CE 340 CE
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Alternative Name	Hmyrm	270 CE 340 CE
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Temporal Bounds Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Peak Years	300 CE
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Duration	[270 CE ➜ 340 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Suprapolity Relations	ye_himyar_1 vassalage to et_aksum_emp_1	298 CE
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Supracultural Entity	Himyarite	270 CE 340 CE
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Succeeding Entity	YeHmyr2	270 CE 340 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	continuity	270 CE 340 CE
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Preceding Entity 149 BCE 349 CE	Axum I (et_aksum_emp_1) [continuity]
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Degree of Centralization	unitary state	270 CE 340 CE
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Language Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Afro-Asiatic	270 CE 340 CE
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Language	Sabaic	270 CE 340 CE
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Religion Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Religious Tradition	South Arabian Religions	270 CE 340 CE
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Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Population of the Largest Settlement	[10,000 to 30,000] people	270 CE 340 CE
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Polity Territory	[250,000 to 350,000] km²	270 CE 340 CE
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Polity Population	[300,000 to 500,000] people	270 CE 340 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	4	270 CE 340 CE
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Religious Level	[3 to 4]	270 CE 340 CE
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Military Level	6	270 CE 340 CE
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Administrative Level	4	270 CE 340 CE
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Professions Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Occupational Complexity	Uncoded Undecided	270 CE 340 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Examination System	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Law Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Judge	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Present Uncertain	270 CE 340 CE
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Formal Legal Code	Absent Uncertain	270 CE 340 CE
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Court	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Food Storage Site	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Port	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Canal	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Information / Writing System Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Script	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Sacred Text	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Religious Literature	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Practical Literature	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Philosophy	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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History	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Fiction	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Calendar	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Information / Money Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Paper Currency	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Article	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Information / Postal System Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Courier	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Information / Measurement System Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Moat	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Earth Rampart	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Ditch	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	270 CE 340 CE
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Long Wall	absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Military use of Metals Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Iron	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Copper	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Bronze	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Projectiles Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Sling	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Javelin	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Composite Bow	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Handheld weapons Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Sword	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Spear	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Dagger	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Animals used in warfare Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Elephant	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Donkey	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Camel	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Armor Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Shield	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Helmet	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Chainmail	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Naval technology Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Absent	270 CE 340 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Present	270 CE 340 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent Inferred	270 CE 340 CE
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Human Sacrifice Himyar I (ye_himyar_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More