Home Region: Afghanistan (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Tocharians

129 BCE 29 CE

D G SC WF

EQ 2020 af_tocharian / AfTochr

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

[elite migration; Sakas] [elite replacement] Update here

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

35 CE 319 CE Kushan Empire (af_kushan_emp) [continuity]

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General Description

The period of Sogdian and Bactrian history between the disintegration of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the late 2nd century BCE and the rise of the Kushan Empire in the 1st century CE is poorly understood. The region was politically fragmented and the local settled populations were subjected to nomadic invasions, notably by a group of pastoralists and traders known to us by their Chinese name, Yuezhi. ^[1] ^[2] The Yuezhi are also sometimes referred to as ’Tochari’ by scholars who believe they spoke a Tocharian language, part of an extinct Indo-European language group. ^[1] (Others argue that their original language was eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic.) ^[3]
In the mid-1st millennium BCE and perhaps even earlier, the Yuezhi were living on the steppes to the north of China. ^[2] However, after coming into conflict with other nomadic groups, the Xiongnu and Wusun, they migrated towards Sogdiana. ^[1] By 129 BCE, when the Han Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian visited the Yuezhi court on the Oxus river, they were ruling over a region that included parts of the old Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom. ^[2]
In the early 1st century CE, the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, seized power and began ruling over south-eastern Sogdiana, marking the end of our Yuezhi period. ^[4] Kujula Kadphises was probably a member of one of five Yuezhi factions or subtribes, which he succeeded in unifying through military conquest, ^[4] but even this is disputed.
Population and political organization
The Yuezhi in Bactria and Sogdiana seem to have been organized into a federation of five tribes that competed for political supremacy in the new territory. ^[5] There is no written or numismatic evidence of a centralized Yuezhi state with a single paramount ruler before the rise of Kujula Kadphises. ^[4] Historian Craig Benjamin has characterized Yuezhi control over the sedentary population of northern Bactria and Sogdia as that of a militarily superior ruling dynasty of nomads, ’pastoralist conquerors’ whose ’nominal sovereignty’ was acknowledged by the locals because they feared violence if they refused to submit. ^[1]
Secure estimates for the combined population of the ruling Yuezhi and the settled population under their control in this period are lacking.

[1]: (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia." In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX.

[2]: (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7.

[3]: (Hill 2009, 312) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK.

[4]: (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK.

[5]: (Liu 2001, 272) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7.

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

3 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

1 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

1 Scale of Supracultural Interaction

1 Relationship to preceding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

2 Language

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

1 Polity Territory

1 Polity Population

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Formal Legal Code

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

1 Mines or Quarry

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

1 Nonwritten Record

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Precious Metal

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 General Postal Service

1 Courier

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

2 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Sling

1 Self Bow

1 Javelin

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Wood Bark Etc

1 Shield

1 Scaled Armor

1 Plate Armor

1 Limb Protection

1 Leather Cloth

1 Laminar Armor

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

1 Breastplate

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events

3 Instability Event

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Tocharians (af_tocharian) was in:
(129 BCE 29 CE)	Sogdiana

Home NGA: Sogdiana

General Variables

Identity and Location Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	42 T	129 BCE 29 CE
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Original Name	Tocharians	129 BCE 29 CE
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Capital	Chien-shih	129 BCE 29 CE
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Alternative Name	Kushans	129 BCE 29 CE
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Alternative Name	Yuezhi	129 BCE 29 CE
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Alternative Name	Yueh-chih	129 BCE 29 CE
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Temporal Bounds Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[129 BCE ➜ 29 CE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Supracultural Entity	Greco-Persian	129 BCE 29 CE
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Succeeding Entity	Kushan Empire	129 BCE 29 CE
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Scale of Supracultural Interaction	4,000,000 km²	129 BCE 29 CE
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Relationship to Preceding Entity	elite migration	129 BCE 29 CE
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Preceding Entity	elite migration; Sakas [elite replacement] Update here
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Succeeding Entity 35 CE 319 CE	Kushan Empire (af_kushan_emp) [continuity] Expert
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Degree of Centralization	quasi-polity	129 BCE 29 CE
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Language Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	Indo-European	129 BCE 29 CE
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Language	Tocharian	129 BCE 29 CE
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Language	Bactrian	129 BCE 29 CE
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Religion Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Polity Territory	[10,000 to 20,000] km²	129 BCE 29 CE
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Polity Population	[100,000 to 225,000] people	129 BCE 29 CE
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Hierarchical Complexity Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	2	129 BCE 29 CE
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Religious Level	[1 to 2]	129 BCE 29 CE
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Military Level	[3 to 4]	129 BCE 29 CE
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Administrative Level	[3 to 4]	129 BCE 29 CE
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Professions Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Professional Priesthood	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Professional Military Officer	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Examination System	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Law Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Formal Legal Code	Uncoded Undecided	129 BCE 29 CE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Irrigation System	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Food Storage Site	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Transport Infrastructure Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Port	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Canal	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Special-purpose Sites Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Mines or Quarry	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Information / Writing System Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Script	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Nonwritten Record	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Sacred Text	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Religious Literature	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Practical Literature	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Philosophy	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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History	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Fiction	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Calendar	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Information / Money Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Precious Metal	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Paper Currency	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Indigenous Coin	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Foreign Coin	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Article	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Information / Postal System Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Courier	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Information / Measurement System Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Modern Fortification	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Complex Fortification	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Military use of Metals Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Present Uncertain	129 BCE 29 CE
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Steel	Absent Uncertain	129 BCE 29 CE
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Iron	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Copper	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Bronze	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Projectiles Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Sling	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Self Bow	Absent Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Javelin	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Crossbow	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Composite Bow	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Atlatl	Absent	129 BCE 29 CE
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Handheld weapons Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Sword	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Spear	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Polearm	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Dagger	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Battle Axe	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Animals used in warfare Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Elephant	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Donkey	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Camel	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Armor Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wood Bark Etc	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Shield	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Scaled Armor	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Plate Armor	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Limb Protection	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Leather Cloth	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Laminar Armor	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Helmet	Present	129 BCE 29 CE
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Chainmail	Present Inferred	129 BCE 29 CE
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Breastplate	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Naval technology Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	129 BCE 29 CE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Human Sacrifice Tocharians (af_tocharian)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More