No General Descriptions provided.
| [50,000 to 100,000] people |
| [500,000 to 600,000] km2 |
| [500,000 to 1,000,000] people | 200 BCE |
| [1,000,000 to 1,500,000] people | 100 BCE |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| Present |
| Present |
| Present |
| Present |
| Unknown |
| Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Uncoded |
| Present |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Year Range | Numidia (dz_numidia) was in: |
|---|
Inhabitants. Likely to have been Cirta.
"In 203 BC King Massinissa of Massyles defeted his rivals from Massaesyles to found Numidia, with its capital at Constantine (then called Cirta) and a population estimated at 100,000. This state eroded the highly tribalised nature of Berber society and attained a high degree of civilisation."
[1]
"Masinissa’s capital would appear to have grown into a real city (though the population of 200,000 attributed to it under Masinissa’s son must be a gross exaggeration). The archaeology is not well known but its urban aspect will have been almost entirely Carthaginian".
[2]
[1]: (Stone 1997, 25) Martin Stone. 1997. The Agony of Algeria. Hurst & Company. London.
[2]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 459-460) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
in squared kilometers
"The present-day Chaouia country is the ancient Numidia ... "
[1]
Chaouia is landlocked a Berber region in Algeria that borders Tunisia to its east. Two modern cities in the region are called Batna and Ain Beidna. The modern cities of Setif, Mila, Constantine, Souk-Ahras, Tebessa, Negrine and Biskra are just outside of and draw a circle around this core Berber speaking region.
"The kingdom of Numidia stretched from the river Molochath to the great Syrtis ... bordering on one side with the Mauretanian kingdom of Tingis ... and on the other with Cyrene and Egypt, and surrounding on the west, south, and east the narrow district of coast which formed the Roman province of Africa."
[2]
Molochath = Moulouya river. Great Syrtis = Syrtis Major, or the Gulf of Sirte, off the coast of Libya.
"In addition to the old possessions of the Numidian chiefs, it embraced by far the greatest portion of the territory which Carthage had possessed in Africa during the times of its prosperity - including several important Old-Phoenician cities, such as Hippo Regius (Bona) and Great Leptis (Lebidah) - altogether the largest and best part of the rich coast land of Northern Africa."
[3]
Great Leptis is the modern city of Khoms in Libya. Hippo Regis is the modern city of Annaba in Algeria.
The eastern part of the Kingdom of Numidia was mostly desert, the western part was "fertile and populous ... what was afterwards Mauretania Caesariensis and Sitifensis".
[4]
"After the defeat of Carthage by Rome in the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), the Numidians expanded into Punic territory, with Dougga incorporated into the Numidian kingdom by c.150 BCE, leading to further development."
[5]
Did not include area around Carthage.
[6]
Wikipedia map of Numidia’s greatest extent. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidia#/media/File:Map_of_kingdom_of_numidia_ancient_algeria.png. This has an area of 562,548 in Google Earth Pro.
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 58) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 144) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Mommsen 1863, 144-145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[5]: (Gill and Muskett. 2017, 338) David Gill. Georgina Muskett. Dougga. Paul G Bahn. ed. 2017. Archaeology: The Essential Guide to Our Human Past. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.
[6]: (Kipfer 2000, 397) Barbara Ann Kipfer. 2000. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.
People. Using McEvedy and Jones numbers for Algeria as the basis of a range with their estimate as the high as some Berbers were independent of the Numidian Kingdom.
Algeria according to McEvedy and Jones
[1]
1,000,000: 200 BCE
1,500,000: 100 BCE
2,000,000: 1 CE
"At the time of the fall of Carthage there were perhaps 100,000 Phoenicians and 500,000 Berbers in Tunisia plus another 2.5m Berbers in the rest of North Africa."
[2]
The Carthage region and the majority of Morocco was not part of Numidia.
Numidia and Mauretania: "It should be stressed that to some extent the two kingdoms continued as merely geographical expressions, since within them a large number of tribes retained their identity well into Roman times, some even beyond, and political unity remained tenuous."
[3]
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979, 223) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1979. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.
[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979, 220) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1979. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.
[3]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
People. Using McEvedy and Jones numbers for Algeria as the basis of a range with their estimate as the high as some Berbers were independent of the Numidian Kingdom.
Algeria according to McEvedy and Jones
[1]
1,000,000: 200 BCE
1,500,000: 100 BCE
2,000,000: 1 CE
"At the time of the fall of Carthage there were perhaps 100,000 Phoenicians and 500,000 Berbers in Tunisia plus another 2.5m Berbers in the rest of North Africa."
[2]
The Carthage region and the majority of Morocco was not part of Numidia.
Numidia and Mauretania: "It should be stressed that to some extent the two kingdoms continued as merely geographical expressions, since within them a large number of tribes retained their identity well into Roman times, some even beyond, and political unity remained tenuous."
[3]
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979, 223) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1979. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.
[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1979, 220) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1979. Atlas of World Population History. Allen Lane. London.
[3]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
levels.
1. Power center / capital?
2. Other town - Hippo Regius 3.
"The main urban centers of ancient Numidia were Cirta (now Constantine) and Hippo Regius (now Annaba).
[1]
Towns "remote from the seat of the royal power, such as Great Leptis".
[2]
Cirta "had access to the sea at Rusicade and Chullu. His other main seaports were Hippo Regius - called ’royal’ to distinguish it from Hippo Diarrhytus, ’intersected by flowing water’ (modern Bizerte), further east - and Thabraca (Libyan Tbrkn), halfway between the two."
[3]
Small towns in the interior.
[3]
Large number of agricultural villages.
[3]
"The settlement hierarchy in populated areas ranged from large port cities, provincial capitals, and inland population centers to villages, rural complexes, and isolated villas and farms. Between these extremes in size were found more specialized populated places: military outposts and camps, mines and quarries, and centers of intensive agricultural production, such as industrialized olive farms. Areas under tribal control were occupied by sedentary and pastoral groups living in oasis towns, hillforts, permanent villages, and seasonal encampments (Mattingly 1994: 17-49)."
[4]
Especially relevant to Roman period.
Roman administration typically allocated land to "self-governing urban centers. Coloniae were cities of the highest rank, followed by municipia and civitates ... Territories came in various sizes, but some were large and densely settled enough to contain dependent villages (vici). In truly vast city territories, for instance those belonging to Carthage and Cirta, further subdivisions were created and administered from semi-autonomous districts (pagi) and native towns (castella). Large estates could be found inside or outside of city territories, but the largest functioned as separate administrative and taxing districts. They were in many ways analogous to cities and their territories."
[4]
Especially relevant to Roman period.
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 159) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
[4]: (Klingshirn 2012, 30) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
levels.
"The Numidian court also adopted elements of Phoenician religion: for example, the occurrence in the Numidian royal family of the names Adherbal (a purely Phoenician name) and Mastanabal (a hybrid form, combining Numidian and Phoenician components) advertises its devotion to the Phoenician god Baal."
[1]
1. King
King may have been deified after death.
[2]
2. 3.
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
levels.
"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice".
[1]
King Micipsa "could raise a powerful army of infantry and cavalry, and a considerable force of war-elephants. There was even a small Numidian fleet, originally created by Masinissa."
[2]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
levels.
1. King / gld / melek.
"The states of Numidia and Mauretania were ruled by people to whom our sources give the title ’king’ ... or occasionally ’chief’ ... The indiegnous title, as wekk know from a Numidian inscription of the second century BC, was gld, presumably a cognate of the modern Berber title aguellid. The native rulers also applied to themselves the Phoenician royal title, melek."
[1]
Hereditary kingship, initially brother to brother but other hereditary succession known.
[2]
"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice".
[3]
"the Numidian kings owned Carthaginian-style estates."
[4]
2. Princes "As his sons were not yet grown up, the reins of government were practically held by an illegitimate nephew of the king, the prince of Jugurtha."
[3]
Jugurtha, a Numidian prince, had been "introduced to the circles of the Roman aristocracy, had at the same time been initiated into the intrigues of Roman coteries, and had studied at the fountainhead what might be expected of Roman nobles."
[5]
2. Council of Nobles/Chieftains Jugurtha summoned a council of war to approve a peace treaty with Rome.
[6]
Greek historian Appian wrote: "There were many separate chieftains of the Numidians in Africa, but Syphax occupied the highest place of all, and was held in great honour by all the others."
[7]
_Court government_
The king of Mauretainia, at the time of Jugurtha, is said to have "received him at his court, uniting to Jugurtha’s followers his own numberless swarms of horsemen".
[8]
Kingdom of Numidia likely also had a court. "The organization of the Numidian kingdom is more obscure, in spite of the exhaustive studies of Camps and Gsell. It is difficult to add to their account of its history. The administrative and economic structures of the kingdom are more interesting, however, in part because they seem to have been extremely fragile."
[9]
2. Counsellor "Now after the death of his two brothers Massinissa’s eldest son, Micipsa, reigned alone, a feeble peaceful old man, who occupied himself more with the study of Greek philosophy than with affairs of state. As his sons were not yet grown up, the reins of government were practically held by an illegitimate nephew of the king, the prince of Jugurtha."
[3]
"Jurgurtha was ... a skilled and courageous rider and hunter; his countrymen held him in high honour as a clear and sagacious administrator".
[3]
Bomilcar was king Jugurtha’s "most confidential counsellor".
[10]
2. Treasury At the time of Jurgurtha the royal treasury was "still well filled with the savings of Massinissa”.
[6]
The Numidian king was wealthy in gold and silver.
[11]
Jugurtha’s treasures "were kept in the town of Suthul (afterwards Calama, now Guelma) difficult of access and still more difficult of conquest".
[12]
3. Manager of mint inferred 4. Mint worker inferred "Operating in the manner of Hellenistic kings, they founded capital cities, built monumental tombs, issued coinage, assembled armies".
[13]
"The coins of Masinissa ... struck in bronze and lead and bearing his bearded portrait and initials in the Punic script, are very numerous, and evidently served as a circulating currency among the Numidians, or at least among the eastern Numidians."
[14]
_Regional government_
2. Sufet (Chief Magristrate of a town) "The Numidian cities were governed in the manner of Carthage by magistrates who nevertheless had Berber titles and possibly Berber customs, while Berber made an increasing appearance alongside Punic in inscriptions in a Berber script."
[4]
"The towns of Cirta and Capsa ... had municipal institutions modelled on those of the Phoenicians, their chief magistrates bearing the Phoenician title sufet."
[15]
3. 4.
2. Chieftains Greek historian Appian wrote: "There were many separate chieftains of the Numidians in Africa, but Syphax occupied the highest place of all, and was held in great honour by all the others."
[7]
"by the end of his reign Masinissa had apparently suppressed or subjected the independent chiefs and united all the Numidians under his rule."
[16]
2. Dependent / autonomous tribes "In the south the free Gaetulian tribes of the desert began at Jugurtha’s call a national war against the Romans."
[8]
Numidia and Mauretania: "It should be stressed that to some extent the two kingdoms continued as merely geographical expressions, since within them a large number of tribes retained their identity well into Roman times, some even beyond, and political unity remained tenuous."
[17]
[1]: (Law 1978, 176-177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[5]: (Mommsen 1863, 146) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[6]: (Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[7]: (Law 1978, 179) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[8]: (Mommsen 1863, 157) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[9]: J J Rossiter. 1978. Roman Farm Buildings in Italy, Issues 52-55. British Archaeological Reports. p. 43
[10]: (Mommsen 1863, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[11]: (Mommsen 1863, 150, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[12]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[13]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
[14]: (Law 1978, 183) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[15]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[16]: (Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[17]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
King Micipsa "could raise a powerful army of infantry and cavalry, and a considerable force of war-elephants. There was even a small Numidian fleet, originally created by Masinissa." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"The Numidian court also adopted elements of Phoenician religion: for example, the occurrence in the Numidian royal family of the names Adherbal (a purely Phoenician name) and Mastanabal (a hybrid form, combining Numidian and Phoenician components) advertises its devotion to the Phoenician god Baal." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"Scipio had divided the sovereign functions [among the princes] ... in such a way that ... the second the charge of war". [1] King Micipsa "could raise a powerful army of infantry and cavalry, and a considerable force of war-elephants. There was even a small Numidian fleet, originally created by Masinissa." [2] Likely the top officials were aristocracy/chiefs but it is hard to imagine a navy without specialist professional officers.
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
A Numidian king such as Jugurtha could afford to pay his top officials, such as Bomilcar, a salary. The aristocracy also owned vast agricultural estates which were awarded by the king to direct family members, possibly to other families who served him.
State salary?
At the time of Jurgurtha the royal treasury was "still well filled with the savings of Massinissa”.
[1]
The Numidian king was wealthy in gold and silver.
[2]
State salary a possibility.
Land?
"the Numidian kings owned Carthaginian-style estates."
[3]
Masinissa encouraged the development of agriculture, which created "vast estates for all of his many sons."
[4]
"Large estates could be found inside or outside of city territories, but the largest functioned as separate administrative and taxing districts."
[5]
Administrative and taxing districts may refer to the Roman period.
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 150, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[4]: (Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[5]: (Klingshirn 2012, 30) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
A Numidian king such as Jugurtha could afford to pay his top officials, such as Bomilcar, a salary. The aristocracy also owned vast agricultural estates which were awarded by the king to direct family members, possibly to other families who served him.
State salary?
At the time of Jurgurtha the royal treasury was "still well filled with the savings of Massinissa”.
[1]
The Numidian king was wealthy in gold and silver.
[2]
State salary a possibility.
Land?
"the Numidian kings owned Carthaginian-style estates."
[3]
Masinissa encouraged the development of agriculture, which created "vast estates for all of his many sons."
[4]
"Large estates could be found inside or outside of city territories, but the largest functioned as separate administrative and taxing districts."
[5]
Administrative and taxing districts may refer to the Roman period.
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 150, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[4]: (Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[5]: (Klingshirn 2012, 30) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
"Operating in the manner of Hellenistic kings, they founded capital cities, built monumental tombs, issued coinage, assembled armies". [1] Mint building for coinage.;;
[1]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
The top official received the job for hereditary reasons. Town officials are referred to as magistrates but they may have had responsibilities other than judging, if they judged at all.
"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice".
[1]
"The towns of Cirta and Capsa ... had municipal institutions modelled on those of the Phoenicians, their chief magistrates bearing the Phoenician title sufet."
[2]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
An official dedicated to the administration of justice suggests the presence of a formal system of law.
"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice".
[1]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"The towns of Cirta and Capsa ... had municipal institutions modelled on those of the Phoenicians, their chief magistrates bearing the Phoenician title sufet." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"We are told that the Romans even handed over to the Numidian kings libraries saved from the destruction of Carthage. It may be that some of the books were of practical value like the treatise of agriculture, by Mago." [1] Masinissa encouraged the development of agriculture, which created "vast estates for all of his many sons. Numidia became a considerable exporter of corn to the Mediterranean world, and some progress was made in developing arboriculture as well as cereal-culture." [2] Did this development also involve irrigation technology?
[1]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
[2]: (Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidian grain was exported to Rome. "When the resulting civil war in Numidia disrupted grain supplies to Rome, some Romans called for war. Rome wanted to restore order to make sure it had access to the Numidian grain." [1] Italian merchant community at Cirta. [2]
[1]: (Burgan 2005, 25) Michael Burgan. 2005. Empire of Ancient Rome. Facts On File, Inc. New York.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Masinissa encouraged the development of agriculture, which created "vast estates for all of his many sons. Numidia became a considerable exporter of corn to the Mediterranean world, and some progress was made in developing arboriculture as well as cereal-culture." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"Of these the Medracen is of particular interest, both from an architectural point of view and as evidence for the pre-Roman organization of southern Numidia. Situated some fifteen kilometers northwest of Lambaesis, the Medracen sits like a giant haystack on a low hill. It is visible for a distance of five or six kilometers on all sides. Its form, as Gsell points out, is a direct descendant of the cylindrical cairns referred to in the last chapter. Indeed, it is surrounded by a number of smaller cairns. The drum, slightly under five metres high and fifty-nine metres in diameter, is surmounted by a stepped, conical mass, with a flat top. On top of this platform there may have been a sort of triangular spire. The reconstructed height of the whole, without the spire, is just under twenty-five metres. The drum is decorated with applied Doric columns, under an ’Egyptian’ cornice. This decoration evidently owes something to a Punic model, but the basic form remains indigenous. On stylistic grounds, Gsell and Camps both date it to the early third century B.C .
[1]
Monuments included "three-storeyed tower tombs with Classical columns and statues capped with a pyramid, and two immense tumuli in dressed stone: the Medracen to the south of Cirta, and the so-called Tomb of the Christian Queen to the west of Algiers, that may have been modelled on the tomb of Alexander at Alexandria."
[2]
"Operating in the manner of Hellenistic kings, they ... built monumental tombs".
[3]
Cirta: "more Punic stelae have been found there than in any other African site except Carthage itself".
[4]
[1]: J J Rossiter. 1978. Roman Farm Buildings in Italy, Issues 52-55. British Archaeological Reports. p. 56
[2]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[3]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
[4]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 460) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
"Now after the death of his two brothers Massinissa’s eldest son, Micipsa, reigned alone, a feeble peaceful old man, who occupied himself more with the study of Greek philosophy than with affairs of state."
[1]
Jugurtha, a Numidian prince, had been "introduced to the circles of the Roman aristocracy, had at the same time been initiated into the intrigues of Roman coteries, and had studied at the fountainhead what might be expected of Roman nobles."
[2]
Intellectual works also were written in Punic.
[3]
King Masinissa was educated at Carthage."
[4]
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture. In 146 BC the Romans presented to Micipsa the captured library of Carthage".
[4]
"We are told that the Romans even handed over to the Numidian kings libraries saved from the destruction of Carthage."
[5]
King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta."
[4]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 146) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[5]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
"Cirta (Constantine) the capital with its port of Rusicade (Philippeville)". [1] Cirta "had access to the sea at Rusicade and Chullu. His other main seaports were Hippo Regius - called ’royal’ to distinguish it from Hippo Diarrhytus, ’intersected by flowing water’ (modern Bizerte), further east - and Thabraca (Libyan Tbrkn), halfway between the two." [2]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
King Juba II (born c50 BCE )"was a prolific writer, writing in Greek on a variety of topics, including history, geography, grammar, and the theater." [1] "Now after the death of his two brothers Massinissa’s eldest son, Micipsa, reigned alone, a feeble peaceful old man, who occupied himself more with the study of Greek philosophy than with affairs of state." [2] "Berber made an increasing appearance alongside Punic in inscriptions in a Berber script. Despite such Berberisation, Punic retained its dominance as a sign that the kingdoms themselves were marginal rather than central to the essentially stateless societies of villages and pastoralists under their control, while the Hellenistic style of their kings ... identifies them with the Graeco-Roman world." [3] Punic was employed as the official language of the Numidian kingdom, as is shown by monumental inscriptions and coin legends. [4] Intellectual works also were written in Punic. [5]
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 118) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[4]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[5]: (Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Written Libyan and Neo-Punic "gave way to Latin in the Roman period" but "a spoken form of Punic" was still widely used in late Roman times. The extent of spoken Libyan is unknown but its script is similar to the Libyan script used by the modern Touareg. [1] "Berber made an increasing appearance alongside Punic in inscriptions in a Berber script. Despite such Berberisation, Punic retained its dominance as a sign that the kingdoms themselves were marginal rather than central to the essentially stateless societies of villages and pastoralists under their control, while the Hellenistic style of their kings ... identifies them with the Graeco-Roman world." [2] Punic was employed as the official language of the Numidian kingdom, as is shown by monumental inscriptions and coin legends. [3] An alphabetic script was created for the Numidian language. "This script is apparently ancestral to the tifinagh script employed by the Berbers of the Sahara". [4]
[1]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 463) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
[2]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[3]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Law 1978, 185) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
An alphabetic script was created for the Numidian language. [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 185) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
An alphabetic script was created for the Numidian language. [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 185) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
King Juba II (born c50 BCE )"was a prolific writer, writing in Greek on a variety of topics, including history, geography, grammar, and the theater." [1] Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [2] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [2]
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 118) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] "The Numidian court also adopted elements of Phoenician religion: for example, the occurrence in the Numidian royal family of the names Adherbal (a purely Phoenician name) and Mastanabal (a hybrid form, combining Numidian and Phoenician components) advertises its devotion to the Phoenician god Baal." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Peace treaty with Rome. [1] Jugurtha conducted a treaty with the Mauretainians. [2] During civil war with Jugurtha "Adherbal stole through the entrenchments of the enemy and a letter of the king full of the most urgent entreaties reached the [Roman] senate”. [3] "We are told that the Romans even handed over to the Numidian kings libraries saved from the destruction of Carthage. It may be that some of the books were of practical value like the treatise of agriculture, by Mago." [4]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 159) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
"Now after the death of his two brothers Massinissa’s eldest son, Micipsa, reigned alone, a feeble peaceful old man, who occupied himself more with the study of Greek philosophy than with affairs of state." [1]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
King Juba II (born c50 BCE )"was a prolific writer, writing in Greek on a variety of topics, including history, geography, grammar, and the theater." [1] "We possess an account of the origins of the kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania given by a Numidian king of the first century BC, Hiempsal II, in a historical work written in Punic (Phoenician), though unfortunately it survices only in an abbreviated quotation by a Roman writer." [2]
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 118) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
King Juba II (born c50 BCE )"was a prolific writer, writing in Greek on a variety of topics, including history, geography, grammar, and the theater." [1] Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [2]
[1]: (Ilahiane 2017, 118) Hsain Ilahiane. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen). Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
The Numidian royalty’s cultural links to the Graeco-Roman world "is evident in their insignia, their coinage and their monuments". [1] "Operating in the manner of Hellenistic kings, they founded capital cities, built monumental tombs, issued coinage, assembled armies". [2] At the time of Masinissa: "Trade in other products was limited and the only coins issued were of bronze and copper." [3] "The coins of Masinissa ... struck in bronze and lead and bearing his bearded portrait and initials in the Punic script, are very numerous, and evidently served as a circulating currency among the Numidians, or at least among the eastern Numidians." [4]
[1]: (Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.
[2]: (Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.
[3]: (Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 459) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.
[4]: (Law 1978, 183) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"Excavations by a German-Tunisian team in the southern part of Dougga have revealed evidence of housing from the Numidian settlement. ... there were a number of late second-century BCE Italian wine amphorae as well as Italian Campana black-glossed wars, common from the second century BCE onward, indicating trade with Italy. Stratified bronze coins included three minted in Rome in 157 or 156 BCE." [1] Italian merchant community at Cirta. [2]
[1]: (Gill and Muskett. 2017, 338) David Gill. Georgina Muskett. Dougga. Paul G Bahn. ed. 2017. Archaeology: The Essential Guide to Our Human Past. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"Excavations by a German-Tunisian team in the southern part of Dougga have revealed evidence of housing from the Numidian settlement. ... there were a number of late second-century BCE Italian wine amphorae as well as Italian Campana black-glossed wars, common from the second century BCE onward, indicating trade with Italy." [1] Italian merchant community at Cirta. [2] Numidian grain was exported to Rome. "When the resulting civil war in Numidia disrupted grain supplies to Rome, some Romans called for war. Rome wanted to restore order to make sure it had access to the Numidian grain." [3]
[1]: (Gill and Muskett. 2017, 338) David Gill. Georgina Muskett. Dougga. Paul G Bahn. ed. 2017. Archaeology: The Essential Guide to Our Human Past. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Burgan 2005, 25) Michael Burgan. 2005. Empire of Ancient Rome. Facts On File, Inc. New York.
At the time of Jurgurtha the royal treasury was "still well filled with the savings of Massinissa”. [1] Jugurtha described as possessing a treasure-chest. [2] Jugurtha’s treasures "were kept in the town of Suthul (afterwards Calama, now Guelma) difficult of access and still more difficult of conquest". [3]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863, 159) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
"Jugurtha’s envoys appeared in Rome”. [1] "Numidia also developed commercial and diplomatic relations with the Greek world." [2]
[1]: (Mommsen 1863, 146) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1] There was an Italian merchant community at Cirta [2] and Numidian grain was exported to Rome. [3]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Burgan 2005, 25) Michael Burgan. 2005. Empire of Ancient Rome. Facts On File, Inc. New York.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1] There was an Italian merchant community at Cirta [2] and Numidian grain was exported to Rome. [3]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Burgan 2005, 25) Michael Burgan. 2005. Empire of Ancient Rome. Facts On File, Inc. New York.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Numidia was "something of a centre of Punic literary culture." [1] King Micipsa encouraged "learned Greeks to come to settle at Cirta." [1]
[1]: (Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.