The British Empire consisted of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a constitutional monarchy. Governors, Proconsuls, and Viceroys were tasked with translating directives from London into forms that were suited to conditions in the colonies.
[1]
At its peak, at the end of the nineteenth century, the British Empire was the largest empire in history, comprising territories of almost one-quarter of the worlds land surface, and a population that was one-quarter of the entire world’s population.
By 1858 the British Crown had taken full control of India from the East India Company after the mutiny and rebellion against the EIC in 1857. British India was then renamed as the British Raj. This lasted until the end of this polity period with the independence of India from the British Empire.
A system of self-governance was gradually applied to some colonies after the independence of the American colonies. Dominion status was given to Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).
Following World Wars I and II, the call for independence for the British territories and colonies across the Empire gained momentum. The breakup of the Empire began in 1947 when India was granted full independence, quickly followed by Pakistan, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) and Burma.
At the same time that the breakup of the empire began, The Commonwealth of Nations was established.
The remaining territories would not be granted independence until after the end of this polity period. African colonies gained independence starting with the Gold Coast in 1957. In 1997 the last major colony of Hong Kong was returned to China.
[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
| 3,250,000 people | 1877 CE |
| [4,500,000 to 6,500,000] people | 1900 CE |
| 20,090,019 km2 | 1881 CE |
| 30,800,000 km2 | 1900 CE |
| 303,512,568 people | 1881 CE |
| 400,000,000 people | 1900 CE |
| 458,000,000 people | 1922 CE |
| 531,000,000 people | 1938 CE |
| 20776 |
| Year Range | British Empire IIIIIIIIII (gb_british_emp_222222) was in: |
|---|
The British Empire was at its territorial peak in 1921. [1] The population of the Empire peaked in 1925 with almost 450 million subjects. [2]
[1]: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire
[2]: (‘Demographics of the British Empire’,) ‘Demographics of the British Empire’ in Wikipedia, 12 March 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographics_of_the_British_Empire&oldid=1076779519. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DQ743ERH
"Unlike the Spanish and the French, the British never attempted to rule colonies directly from the metropole ... At the core of Imperial administration .... a series of essentially bilateral relationships which entailed constant negotiation rather than the imposition of rule and the acceptance of subjection."
[1]
"Rather than constituting one empire, this conglomeration of large land masses and territorial fragments comprised several empires ... as a political entity it was loosely held together".
[1]
Imperial agents in the colonies "exercised considerable latitude of authority and were notoriously difficult to control ... Far from being subordinates, many masterful individuals had their own agendas and ambitions; often they acted independently, disregarding directives or exceeding instructions with cavalier exuberance and frequently with impunity."
[1]
[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Inhabitants.
"Table of the Towns of the British Isles, above 100,000 inhabitants, in 1871." London: 3,254,260
[1]
Colquhoun says 900,000 in 1801.
[2]
4.5 million in 1901 CE
[3]
[1]: (Bartholomew 1877, vii) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.
[2]: Page 27. Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London: Joseph Mawman), 1814.
[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.
Inhabitants.
"Table of the Towns of the British Isles, above 100,000 inhabitants, in 1871." London: 3,254,260
[1]
Colquhoun says 900,000 in 1801.
[2]
4.5 million in 1901 CE
[3]
[1]: (Bartholomew 1877, vii) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.
[2]: Page 27. Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London: Joseph Mawman), 1814.
[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.
in squared kilometres. [1]
[1]: (Smith 1882: 3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI.
in squared kilometers
1800 CE: Parliament approves legislation uniting Great Britain and Ireland as a single state."
[1]
1900 CE: 30.8 million km2 in 1901
[2]
In 1877? CE according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693.
[3]
22,674,810 km2.
"Table of the British Possessions throughout the World, with their Population and Area in English Square Miles." Table has data for all of these locations: Europe (British Islands, Gibraltar, Heligoland, Malta and Gozo); Asia (India, including Depedent States, Celon, Andaman Islands, Straits Settlements, Aden, Hong Kong, Labuan Island, Perim Island); Africa (Gambia River, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Lagos, Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, Mauritius and Depedencies, Socotra, Ascension Island, St. Helena Island, Tristan d’Acunha); North America (Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, British Honduras or Belize, West India Islands, Bermuda Islands); South America (British Guiana, Falkland Islands); Oceania (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Northern Territory, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Chatham Islands, Fiji Islands).
[4]
[1]: Kenneth J Panton. 2015. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.
[2]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.
[3]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.
[4]: (Bartholomew 1877, vi) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.
people. [1]
[1]: (Smith 1882: 3) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
People. Maddison Project Estimates
[1]
Alternate estimates: In 1877 CE? according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693.
[2]
According to statistician Patrick Colquhoun, the total population of the Empire in 1814 was 61.15 Million. A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire
398.4 million in 1901
[3]
[1]: https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/releases/maddison-project-database-2018
[2]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.
[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.
people. [1]
[1]: (Smith 1882: 3) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
PROBLEMATIC_DESCRIPTION_FOUND levels._The UK_ : 1. Capital City : London is the imperial capital of the UK and of the British Empire. It was the centre of royal and governmental power. It was by far the most populated settlement in the UK. §REF§( :: 2. Major cities :: Cities such as York, Exeter, Cambridge and Ely in the UK were major centres of urban settlement. They housed a bishop with his seat as a cathedral. They were major points of trade, industry and had the highest number of inhabitants after London. ::: 3. Industrial towns :::: 4. Small towns ::::: 5. Villages :::::: 6. Hamlets _Territories, Domains and Colonies_ British India was divided into: :: 2. Provincial Capitals :: Capital cities in territories outside of the UK. The colonial government operated from this city/settlement. :::
levels. [1] The Church of England, from its creation during Henry VIII’s reign had a different structure, with the monarch as the head of the church: : 1. The Monarch :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 30) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U
levels. [1] _British Army_ [2] Officers : 1. Field Marshall :: 2. General ::: 3. Lieutenant General :::: 4. Major General ::::: 5. Brigadier :::::: 6.Colonel ::::::: 7. Lieutenant Colonel :::::::: 8. Major :::::::: 8.1 Warrant Officers ::::::::: 9. Captain :::::::::: 10. Lieutenant ::::::::::: 11. Second Lieutenant :::::::::::: 12. Officer Cadet Soldiers ::::::::::::: 13. Soldiers :::::::::::::: 14. Staff Sergeant :::::::::::::::: 15. Sergeant ::::::::::::::::: 16. Corporal :::::::::::::::::: 17. Lance Corporal ::::::::::::::::::: 18. Private _British Raj_ : 1. Commander-in-Chief [3] :: 2. Lieutenant-General [3] ::: 3. Lower Officers (as above) ::::: 4. Soldiers (as above)
[1]: (Smith 1882: 8) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
[2]: (https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GUZSL7S2
[3]: (Smith 1881: 4, 9) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
levels._UK_ : 1. Monarch _British Raj_ Example of British India, which from 1861 was directly controlled by the British government via the following in-place administration. Lower levels of administrators (e.g. Deputies and Assistants) are responsible for the districts or lesser divisions within each province in British India. There were 848 civil service members in 1881. [1] : 1. Viceroy and Governor-General of India (Later shortened to Viceroy of India) : Viceroy and Governor-General was directly appointed by the Crown and Parliament and ruled the territory as a representative of the monarch. They had a Legislative Council of six high ranking members, one of which is the Commander-in-Chief or Lieutenant-General of the army. The Secretary of State ran the Executive Council. Other members of the councils include prominent mercantile members and representatives of the native population. :: 2. Secretary of State ::: 2.2. Executive Council ::: 2.2. Legislative Council ::: 2.2. High Court of Justice :::: 3. Governors ::::: 4. Lieutenant-Governors :::::: 5. Chief-Commissioners ::::::: 5.2. Deputy-Commisioners :::::::: 5.3. Assistant Commisioners :::::: 5.1. Financial Commissioner :::::::: 6. Collector-Magistrate ::::::::: 6.2. Deputy Magistrate :::::::::: 6.3. Assistant Magistrate ::::::::::: 7. Lesser administrative posts throughout the region.
[1]: (Smith 1882: 7-10) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
Soldiers were posted across the empire. In 1881 British India had an imperial army of 63,000. [1]
[1]: (Smith 1881: 4, 9) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
Military officers were posted across the empire. In 1881 British India had an imperial army of 63,000, with 4,400 officers. [1]
[1]: (Smith 1881: 4, 9) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI
There were thousands of bureaucrats posted throughout the Empire. In Britain, expanding system of full-time salaried bureaucrats; in India, a system of (mostly non-native) salaried officials known as the Indian Civil Service, introduced in 1858.
Official regulations covered "private property rights, the rule of law, trial by jury". [1] "In the case of Britain and the states that obtained independence from it, the two important components are Parliament as supreme law-maker and the nature and jurisdiction of courts." [2] . English common and statutory law, amended with colonial statutes wherever deemed necessary.
[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Taucar 2014) Christopher Edward Taucar. 2014. The British System of Government and Its Historical Development. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Official regulations covered "private property rights, the rule of law, trial by jury". [1] "In the case of Britain and the states that obtained independence from it, the two important components are Parliament as supreme law-maker and the nature and jurisdiction of courts." [2]
[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Taucar 2014) Christopher Edward Taucar. 2014. The British System of Government and Its Historical Development. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Irrigation was already present in the UK and was developed throughout the Empire. [1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 351) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
“As a revolution in urban governance swept Britain from the 1840s onward, a revolution in water supply and drainage infrastructure followed. The apogee of that movement was a water supply system called the gravitation scheme that reforming municipalities aspired to build. It entailed drastically reshaping landscapes in the hinterlands of cities by damming rivers, raising lakes, or flooding valleys and then piping water under pressure to sometimes distant cities; it also, promoters hoped, would reform urban environments and societies at the same time. Between 1840 and the end of the century, engineers in Britain executed it approximately one hundred times, but the gravitation scheme had a life beyond the bounds of Britain. In the second half of the nineteenth century, engineers—usually the very same individuals who had carried them out in Britain— introduced the scheme to cities such as Bombay, Colombo, Hong Kong, and Singapore. There, the gravitation scheme also had a transformative influence; it was a project of environmental and technical change that helped to solidify the modernizing colonial state.” [1]
[1]: Broich, Joseph. 2007. “Engineering the Empire: British Water Supply Systems and Colonial Societies, 1850-1900” Journal of British Studies 46: 347-365.
Universities, schools, colleges, laboratories, archives, libraries etc.
Theatres, gambling halls, coffee-houses, cinemas, music halls, pubs etc. [1]
[1]: (Porter 1999: 276-77) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense. [1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense. [1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense. [1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
The existing transport infrastructure in the UK was developed throughout the Empire at great expense. [1]
[1]: ( Porter 1999: 129, 254-56, 351, 529, 660, 685, 702) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
Tin and coal mines in the UK. Precious metals and jewels in the Americas and Africa. [1] Gold mines in Australia, Canada and America, and diamond quarries in South Africa. [2]
[1]: (Colquhoun 1811: 130) Colquhoun, Patrik. 1814. Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire in Every Quarter of the World Etc. Jos. Mawman. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SNZA6FJ
[2]: (Porter 1999: 263) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG
British trading posts such as Gibraltar became famous for their emporiums and immense amounts of imports and exports that it traded across the Empire. [1]
[1]: ( Colquhoun 1811: 306) Colquhoun, Patrik. 1814. Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire in Every Quarter of the World Etc. Jos. Mawman. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SNZA6FJ
Books, essays, manuscripts, court records, legal texts, poetry, pamphlets and newspapers, almanacs etc. [1] [2]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 171, 283, 372-73) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U
[2]: (Marshall 2006: 231-244, 270-271) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
As the empire expanded, non-phonetic alphabets such as Hindi, Punjabi, Cantonese, Mandarin were introduced, though in no way adopted officially, however some ruling members of the colonies would encourage study of the local language. [1]
[1]: (Marshall 2006: 130, 243, 248, 525) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
Advice books for subjects such as agriculture and farming. Travel books. Military strategy. Architecture [1] [2]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 372) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U
[2]: (Marshall 2006: 1170-2) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
Histories of England and military and warfare history were particularly popular at the beginning of the period. [1]
[1]: (Marshall 2006: 170, 172) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
Poetry, novels, plays. [1] [2]
[1]: (Marshall 2006: 18, 523) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
[2]: (Canny 1998: 100. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTDR3NCN
Britain used the Gregorian calendar from the mid-eighteenth century. [1]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: xvi) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U
Gold had been used widely in the preceding polities for hundreds of years and began to be mined throughout the Empire, particularly the Americas and Africa. [1]
[1]: (Colquhoun 1811: 130) Colquhoun, Patrik. 1814. Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire in Every Quarter of the World Etc. Jos. Mawman. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SNZA6FJ
British sterling. "Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint’s role was largely domestic. Britain’s North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to ’purchase’ permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions. For the Mint itself the eighteenth century was a period of relative stagnation: British silver and copper coinage was in a poor condition and was in short supply. ... The end of the Napoleonic wars, however, was followed by currency reform and in 1816-17 recoinage in Britain. In 1818 private coins were made illegal. ... The installation of Boulton’s steam-powered machinery, coupled with a French invention, the ’reducing machine’, which reproduced original coin designs by machine rather than by hand engraving, enabled for the first time the mass production of high-quality and homogenous copper coins and transformed the Mint itself into an ’industrial concern’. These changes coincided with the growth of a ’second’ British Empire and the Mint began producing more coins for overseas dependenies." [1]
[1]: (Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.
Territories across the empire had their own currency, e.g. Rupees in India. "Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint’s role was largely domestic. Britain’s North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to ’purchase’ permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions." [1] "domestic British coin became increasingly an ’imperial currency’, circulating throughout much of the Empire. ... in the course of the nineteeth century, the Mint began producing a variety of dedicated colonial as well as other foreign coinages, designated ’private’ by the Mint, and paid for by the overseas customers. From 1883 the Treasury encouraged all colonies to obtain their local currencies from the Mint." [2]
[1]: (Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.
[2]: (Stockwell 2018, 46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.
Banks had been established since the late seventeenth century. There were also an increasing number of commercial, mercantile and private creditors in the UK and across the Empire. [1]
[1]: (Marshall 2006: 62-63, 296, 384, 423, 432) Marshall, P. J. ed. 2006. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II The Eighteenth Century. Vol. 2, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGG2PPQQ
British postal stations were spread throughout the Empire. This reference concerns possessions in South Africa: "...by horses and, in the ’twenties, by postcarts: a weekly postal service was set up in 1834. In 1852 there was a daily service from Cape Town to Paarl and Stellenbosh, thrice weekly to Grahamstown and twice weekly to the Karoo. The postcart also conveyed passengers. Following the issue of the famous three-cornered Capes in 1853, a penny post was established in limited areas in 1860 and four years later it was possible to extend it to the whole Colony. But, despite better roads, the ox-waggon remained the commercial vehicle and was still in use a century later." [1]
[1]: (? 1963, 795) ? in Eric A Walker. ed. 1963. The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume III. South Africa, Rhodesia and The High Commission Territories. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
There had been a postal service in England from 1660. In 1821 steam-driven ships began to deliver mail across the British Empire. [1] This reference concerns possessions in South Africa: "...by horses and, in the ’twenties, by postcarts: a weekly postal service was set up in 1834. In 1852 there was a daily service from Cape Town to Paarl and Stellenbosh, thrice weekly to Grahamstown and twice weekly to the Karoo. The postcart also conveyed passengers. Following the issue of the famous three-cornered Capes in 1853, a penny post was established in limited areas in 1860 and four years later it was possible to extend it to the whole Colony. But, despite better roads, the ox-waggon remained the commercial vehicle and was still in use a century later." [2]
[1]: ( Royal Mail. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QI4L8AA2.
[2]: (? 1963, 795) ? in Eric A Walker. ed. 1963. The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume III. South Africa, Rhodesia and The High Commission Territories. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
From the seventeenth century gardens were increasingly laid out in geometric and symmetrical designs. In the eighteenth-century symmetrical buildings, houses and gardens was the most fashionable architectural style. This continued into the nineteenth century. [1]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 374, 376) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U
"Engineers not only cut paths through forests, built fortified stations, and erected bridges, but they also provided telegraphic communications, aerial reconnaissance from balloons, and rail transportation in some operations." [1] 1856-1881 CE: Trenches used in warfare at this time. [2] Were more successful fighting Zulus standing behind barricades. [3]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 197) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 8) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
[3]: (Barthorp 1988, 14) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Coded present as they were used by indigenous forces under British command? Why would the British use tension siege engines when they have cannon? Ed.
Coded present as they were used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.
"The army profited, too, from an extensive rearmament during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. The introduction of breech-loading rifters (the snider and Martini-Henry) increased the rates of fire and enabled soldiers to fire from a prone position." Also introduced: "bolt mechanism and magazine, smaller calibre ammunition, and smokeless propellants (in the Lee-Enfield rifle)". "Finally, the army experimented with different machine-guns before adopting the relatively light and geniunely automatic Maxim machine-gun." [1] Illustration shows pistol. [2] 1860s, smoothbore muskets. 1880s, breach-loading rifles. Artillery: Muzzle-loading cannon; rifled & breach-loading artillery 1850s onwards; machine guns 1870s onwards [3]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 196) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Barthorp 1988, Plate G) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
[3]: M.L. Wilkinson. "A Hundred Years of the British Army: Weapons and Equipment." Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Vol. 76, 1931. 300-310.
The Royal Artillery. [1] The Indian Mutiny "was the last major campaign fought with smoothbore guns, with limited range and accuracy largely unchanged since the Napoleonic Wars. The field batteries sent to China in 1860 were equipped with Armstrong 12-pdr. rifled breech-loaders ... the same gun and a 6-pdr. version was also used against the Maoris. Firing elongated, instead of spherical projectiles of shell, shrapnel and case with greatly enhanced accuracy and range - more accurate at two miles than a smoothbore equivalent." [2] "From 1871 the 9-pdr. and 16-pdr. [rifled muzzle-loader] became the standard field guns for horse and field batteries; their ranges respectively were 2000-3,300 yards and 1,800-4,000, depending on elevation." [2]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 196) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 12) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.
Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.
Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.
Horses. [1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." [2]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 194) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." [1] Rifled-breech loaders "were soon transferred to elephants ... to form an improvised, and the first RA mountain battery". [2]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 12) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." [1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." [2]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." [1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." [2]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
"The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." [1]
[1]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.
Illustration "Officer, Bengal Horse Artillery" shows knee-high (leather?) boots. [1] "Whereas the 8th had worn their trousers loose, the 67th adopted puttees (from a Hindi word meaning bandages) to support and protect the leg, as worn by Indian troops and soon widespread among the British. Pictorial evidence suggests, however, that puttees were not necessarily worn at all times." [2] Steel cuirasses worn mainly for ceremonial purposes/use. [3]
[1]: (Barthorp 1988, Plate B) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 37) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
[3]: Richard Knotel, Herbert Knotel, Jr., & Herbert Sieg. Uniforms of the World: A Compendium of Army, Navy and Air Force Uniforms, 1700-1937. New York: Scribner’s, 1980.
"Practical considerations, however, prevailed during the South African campaigns and fighting men in the Boer War needed the large shady hat of soft felt with brim that could be lowered to shield eyes or nape ... The soft khaki felt hat of the Boer War proved acceptable and comfortable and its shape was retained for the the Civil Imperial Volunteers. ... At the outbreak of the First World War the peaked cap proved a light and practical form of headwear for all ranks, but under shellfire the metal helmet (or ’tin hat’) protected the head against shrapnel." [1] "The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." [2]
[1]: Hilda Amphlett.1974 (2003). Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear. Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola.
[2]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.
"Practical considerations, however, prevailed during the South African campaigns and fighting men in the Boer War needed the large shady hat of soft felt with brim that could be lowered to shield eyes or nape ... The soft khaki felt hat of the Boer War proved acceptable and comfortable and its shape was retained for the the Civil Imperial Volunteers. ... At the outbreak of the First World War the peaked cap proved a light and practical form of headwear for all ranks, but under shellfire the metal helmet (or ’tin hat’) protected the head against shrapnel." [1] "The Home Service pattern helmet, generally known as the ’Blue Cloth’ helmet, was introduced by General Order 40 of May 1878, and replaced the shako that had been worn since 1869. The fittings, spike, plate, rosettes and chinchain were all in brass." [2] "The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." [2] "Crealock’s sketches confirm this dress for the infantry and show the King’s Dragoon Guards in brass, plume-less helmets with turbans, or probably later in the campaign, airpipe helmets, tunics and booted overalls or, for officers, long boots pulled on over their trousers." [3]
[1]: Hilda Amphlett.1974 (2003). Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear. Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola.
[2]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.
[3]: (Barthorp 1988, 24, 33) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.
At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener "had at his disposal 44 guns and 20 machine-guns on land, and another 36 guns and 24 machine-guns on gunboats". [1]
[1]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.