Home Region:  Afghanistan (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Hephthalites

408 CE 561 CE

D G SC WF EC HS PT EQ 2020  af_hephthalite_emp / AfHepht

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The Hepthalites were one group of a series of nomadic tribal confederations that are sometimes referred to as the White Huns. The evidence seems to indicate that they were a second wave of Hunnish migration. [1] Despite the name, some scholars think the White Huns were in fact not a Turkic people, but rather the easternmost group of Iranian nomads. [2]
At their peak territorial coverage the Hephthalite lands may have enclosed 26 million people but most subjects likely had a great deal of autonomy. As a nomadic confederation, the Hepthalites may not have possessed a central administration, although evidence indicates at least the adoption of local administrations for the purposes of exacting tribute. [3] During the peak of their power, they seem to have become increasingly sedentary, and this may have increased the degree of centralization. Coins show Hephthalites practiced skull deformation [4] which may provide indirect evidence for strong social hierarchy and status competition.
Commentators at the time differed in their opinions as to what the structure of the group was and to what degree they differed from the other nomadic peoples of the area. The Byzantian commentator Procopius of Caesarea stressed that, ’They are not nomadic like the other Hunnish peoples, but have long since settled on fertile land.’ He further explained that unlike the other peoples of central asia, the Hepthalites were,’ruled by one king and possess a legal state structure, observing justice among themselves and with their neighbours in no lesser measure than the Byzantines and Persians.’ [1]

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf p. 140

[2]: Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: a history of empire and invasion. Union Square Press, 2008. p. 105

[3]: encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201

[4]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

General Variables
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Hierarchical Complexity
Professions
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Law
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Transport Infrastructure
Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Information / Money
Information / Postal System
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Hephthalites (af_hephthalite_emp) was in:
 (473 CE 496 CE)   Sogdiana
 (496 CE 531 CE)   Sogdiana     Kachi Plain
 (531 CE 563 CE)   Sogdiana
Home NGA: Sogdiana

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
42 N
[408, 561]

Original Name:
Hepthalite Empire
[408, 561]

Capital:
Balkh
[408, 561]

attested as the capital by Chinese sources from the period, although how centralized the state was is largely unknown. Some limited excavation has taken place. [1]
"473-79 Hephthalites conquer Sogdiana and establish a capital city at Pendjikent." [2]
Toramana, who made conquests in India "established his capital city at Salaka" [3]

[1]: Denis Sinor, "The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire" in Denis Sinor, "The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, Volume 1", Cambridge University Press, 1990. p. 300; Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 152

[2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[3]: (Bauer 2010, 180) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.

Capital:
Pendjikent
[408, 561]

attested as the capital by Chinese sources from the period, although how centralized the state was is largely unknown. Some limited excavation has taken place. [1]
"473-79 Hephthalites conquer Sogdiana and establish a capital city at Pendjikent." [2]
Toramana, who made conquests in India "established his capital city at Salaka" [3]

[1]: Denis Sinor, "The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire" in Denis Sinor, "The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, Volume 1", Cambridge University Press, 1990. p. 300; Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 152

[2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[3]: (Bauer 2010, 180) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.

Capital:
Sakala
[408, 561]

attested as the capital by Chinese sources from the period, although how centralized the state was is largely unknown. Some limited excavation has taken place. [1]
"473-79 Hephthalites conquer Sogdiana and establish a capital city at Pendjikent." [2]
Toramana, who made conquests in India "established his capital city at Salaka" [3]

[1]: Denis Sinor, "The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire" in Denis Sinor, "The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, Volume 1", Cambridge University Press, 1990. p. 300; Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 152

[2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[3]: (Bauer 2010, 180) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.


Alternative Name:
Hepthalite Huns
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Ye-Ta
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Cao
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Ephthalites
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Hayathelaites
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Hephtal
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
He-ta
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Hoa
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Hoa-Tun
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Hunas
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Iranian Huns
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
the people of Hua
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
White Huns
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Yeda
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Ye-tai
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

Alternative Name:
Ye-ti-i-li-do
[408, 561]

Cao; Ephthalites; Hayathelaites; Hephtal; He-ta; Hoa; Hoa-Tun; Hunas; Iranian Huns; the people of Hua; White Huns; Yeda; Ye-tai; Ye-ti-i-li-do. [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 274) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.


Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
[509 CE ➜ 522 CE]
 

509 CE. The apex of Hephthalite power. Over forty countries paid tribute, and the authority of the tribal confederacy extended over a vast territorial area from central Asia into northern India. [1]
"522 The height of Hephthalite power." [2]
Reign of King Toramana. When Toramana "died sometime between 515 and 520 and was succeeded by his son, crown prince Mihirakula, the nature of the empire changed." [3]

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750 Vol. 3, 1999 p. 144

[2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[3]: (Bauer 2010, 181) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.


Duration:
[408 CE ➜ 561 CE]
 

The beginning data, 408 CE, marks the first appearance of the polity as a separate entity in the records of the local empires when they begin raiding the Sassanian Empire.
"557-61 Final victory of Khosrow I, the Sassanid king, over Hephthalite forces." [1]
Between 557 CE to 561 CE the Persian King Chosroes allied with another steppe people who had appeared from inner Asia. Although some component peoples of the Hepthalites may have survived into the period of the Islamic conquest, even this contingent had faded outside of some mountain strongholds by around 670 CE. [2]
"565 Almost complete disappearance of Hephthalites in the face of the emergence of the western Turks (Gokturks)." [1]
570 CE is when the core territories were split between the Turkic nomads in the north, and the resurgent Sassanian empire.
The timeline of Hepathalites arrival into India is murky but indicates a period of dominance until the local population rebelled after religious persecution and a reduction in military support when the Hepthalites faced conflicts with incoming Turkic peoples. [3]

[1]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: Runion, Meredith L. The history of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p. 48

[3]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia p. 146


Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
af_hephthalite_emp alliance with ir_sassanid_emp_1
[408, 561]

Sassanid tribute
"459 Hephthalites assist Firuz (Peroz) to regain his Sassanid throne; he must pay significant tribute in return." [1]
none: 408-562 CE; vassalage: 563-670 CE [2]
The Hepthalite were vassals to Kusrau I, the Sasasian King. Independent elements in the south maintained a degree of independence in the Zerafshan valley as tribute payers to the Turks, and further south to the Sasasians. By the 570s the only truly independent fragments of the former power of the Hepthalites were located in modern day Tajikistan and Afghanistan, the longest enduring in Kabul. [2]

[1]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 147


Supracultural Entity:
Steppe nomads
[408, 561]

Hephthalites "of uncertain origin and cultural affiliation" [1]

[1]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.


Succeeding Entity:
First Turk Khaganate
[408, 561]

Scale of Supracultural Interaction:
[7,500,000 to 8,000,000] km2
[408, 561]

km squared. "The Byzantine writer Procopius in the early sixth century refers to them as white-bodied Huns ... However, there is no material or linguistic evidence that they were related to the Huns or Xiongnu at all, and the name has generally been interpreted as a mistaken identity given to a nomadic people whose culture resembled that of the Huns." [1] All the nomadic kingdoms that flourished in Bactria between the middle of the fourth century CE and the middle of the sixth century CE seem to have originated in a massive migration in the second half of the fourth century between 350 CE and 370 CE. [2]

[1]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.


Relationship to Preceding Entity:
elite migration
[408, 561]

"The original homeland of the Hephthalites is relatively obscure although most experts agree that they originated north of the Great Wall of China, in or near present day Mongolia. A Chinese source from the second century states that they lived in a region of northwest China sometimes referred to as Dzungaria, a steppe area surrounded by mountain chains." [1] All the nomadic kingdoms that flourished in Bactria between the middle of the fourth century CE and the middle of the sixth century CE seem to have originated in a massive migration in the second half of the fourth century between 350 CE and 370 CE. [2]

[1]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.


Preceding Entity:
elite migration; Sassanid Empire I [elite replacement]    Update here
 

(Relationship): "The original homeland of the Hephthalites is relatively obscure although most experts agree that they originated north of the Great Wall of China, in or near present day Mongolia. A Chinese source from the second century states that they lived in a region of northwest China sometimes referred to as Dzungaria, a steppe area surrounded by mountain chains." [1] All the nomadic kingdoms that flourished in Bactria between the middle of the fourth century CE and the middle of the sixth century CE seem to have originated in a massive migration in the second half of the fourth century between 350 CE and 370 CE. [2]
(Entity): the core area of this polity is considered to be Sogdiana

[1]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.


Degree of Centralization:
nominal
[408, 561]

The Hepthalites were one group of a series of nomadic tribal confederations that are sometimes referred to as the White Huns. The evidence seems to indicate that they were a second wave of Hunnish migration. Commentators at the time differ as to what the structure of the group was and to what degree they differed from the other nomadic peoples of the area. The Byzantian commentator Procopius of Caesarea stressed that, ’They are not nomadic like the other Hunnish peoples, but have long since settled on fertile land.’ He further explained that unlike the other peoples of central asia, the Hepthalites were, ’ruled by one king and possess a legal state structure, observing justice among themselves and with their neighbours in no lesser measure than the Byzantines and Persians.’ [1]
As a nomadic confederation, there does not seem to have been a centralized power structure, although some evidence indicates the adoption of local administrations for the purposes of exacting tribute. [2] During the peak of their power, they seem to have become increasingly sedentary, and this potentially increased the degree of centralization.

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf p. 140

[2]: encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201

Degree of Centralization:
confederated state
[408, 561]

The Hepthalites were one group of a series of nomadic tribal confederations that are sometimes referred to as the White Huns. The evidence seems to indicate that they were a second wave of Hunnish migration. Commentators at the time differ as to what the structure of the group was and to what degree they differed from the other nomadic peoples of the area. The Byzantian commentator Procopius of Caesarea stressed that, ’They are not nomadic like the other Hunnish peoples, but have long since settled on fertile land.’ He further explained that unlike the other peoples of central asia, the Hepthalites were, ’ruled by one king and possess a legal state structure, observing justice among themselves and with their neighbours in no lesser measure than the Byzantines and Persians.’ [1]
As a nomadic confederation, there does not seem to have been a centralized power structure, although some evidence indicates the adoption of local administrations for the purposes of exacting tribute. [2] During the peak of their power, they seem to have become increasingly sedentary, and this potentially increased the degree of centralization.

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf p. 140

[2]: encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201


Language
Linguistic Family:
Indo-European
[408, 561]

Language:
Bactrian
[408, 561]

Bactrian; Iranian; Turkic According to the Chinese records from the period, the language of the Hephthalites was distinct from that of those Iranian-speaking people of Central Asia who were called Hu by the Chinese. However, there is no consensus among scholars. [1] Recent work has reappraised Chinese manuscript sources to postulate that the Hephtalites had ceased to retain their original Altaic language and adopted Bactrian by the end of the fourth century. [2] "Probably dominated by an Eastern Iranian language, but their mixed ancestry also lead to multilingualism." [3]

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 139

[2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): p. 122

[3]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.


Religion
Religion Genus:
Hephthalite Religions
[408, 561]

Alternate Religion:
Uncoded
[408, 561]


Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Polity Territory:
1,000,000 km2
450 CE

squared kilometers,
In 532 CE India was lost after a successful rebellion. In 557 CE - 561 CE the Sasasanids annexed substantial territories, and in 565 CE the Goturks claimed the remainder and took a number of successor kingdoms as vassals.
The late fifth and early sixth centuries saw the start of Hephthalite raids on Gandhara and northern India.
Information is scarce, but recent discoveries have given evidence of what had been earlier only speculation. Islamic sources describe a series of disastrous campaigns by the Sassasian King Peroz that resulted in his eventual death. [1] Following this victory, the Hepthalties secured control over Central Asia, Korasan and Afganistan from the Sassanian and Kushan Kingdoms. [2] They continued to expand until the sixth century, when they were defeated by a recovered Sassasian Empire fighting alongside another confederation of central Asian nomads known as the Gokturks. This defeat destroyed Hepthalite power in transoxania, though some fragment of power seems to have existed until the Arab invasions. [1]

[1]: encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201

[2]: Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: a history of empire and invasion. Union Square Press, 2008. p. 105

Polity Territory:
[2,750,000 to 3,000,000] km2
500 CE

squared kilometers,
In 532 CE India was lost after a successful rebellion. In 557 CE - 561 CE the Sasasanids annexed substantial territories, and in 565 CE the Goturks claimed the remainder and took a number of successor kingdoms as vassals.
The late fifth and early sixth centuries saw the start of Hephthalite raids on Gandhara and northern India.
Information is scarce, but recent discoveries have given evidence of what had been earlier only speculation. Islamic sources describe a series of disastrous campaigns by the Sassasian King Peroz that resulted in his eventual death. [1] Following this victory, the Hepthalties secured control over Central Asia, Korasan and Afganistan from the Sassanian and Kushan Kingdoms. [2] They continued to expand until the sixth century, when they were defeated by a recovered Sassasian Empire fighting alongside another confederation of central Asian nomads known as the Gokturks. This defeat destroyed Hepthalite power in transoxania, though some fragment of power seems to have existed until the Arab invasions. [1]

[1]: encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201

[2]: Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: a history of empire and invasion. Union Square Press, 2008. p. 105


Polity Population:
26,500,000 people
500 CE

The total size of the Hephthalite population is unknown. In the territory of Tokharistan there were reportedly 5,000-6,000 Hephthalite warriors. This could suggest a population of 50,000 individuals if the extended family groups were included, although this would have been experienced considerable fluctuations with the increase and decrease of the number of affiliated tribes and fortune of the Hepthalite. [1]
McEvedy and Jones (1978) 26,500,000: 500 CE [2]
Russian Tukestan 1,000,000: 400-600 CE
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh: 45,000,000: 400 CE; 50,000,000: 500 CE. In 200 BC approximately 40% in the Ganges Basin which would translate to 20m in 500 CE. Hephthalites held Upper and Middle Gangers Basin so perhaps two-thirds (13m) under Hephthalite control. Indus Basin likely to have been next most populous part of Indian sub-continent at this time. If 25% of the total: 12.5m.

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750 Vol. 3, 1999 pp. 138-141

[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978)


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
[2 to 3]
[408, 561]

[1] The levels potentially consisted of:
1. Fortified Urban communities: Balkh, Termez. Balkh described as having 3,000 monks. It had a circumference of c. 20 li. Temez had "perhaps 1, 000 monks." It had a circumference of 20 li. The area of the ’town’ is 10 ha. The area of the town plus suburb is 70 ha. [1]
2. Subjugated agricultural villages
3. Nomadic peoples ’Without cities and towns, they follow water and grass, using felt to make tents, moving to the cold places in summer, to the warm ones in winter.’ [2]

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, p. 152

[2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132.


Religious Level:
1
[408, 561]

The city of Balkh had about 100 Buddhist monasteries and some 3,000 monks. Outside the town was a large Buddhist monastery, although this description occurs after the area had been conquered by the Turks. Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, a Sun cult and some kind of sky and fire worship are also attested. However, we have no information as to what the Hepthalites practiced, and whether this had a hierarchical structure. [1]
"There is some evidence that Buddhism was practices in some of the territories held by the Hephthalites; however, some contemporary authors also wrote of the persecution of Buddhists. There are references to sacred fire, which indicates at least some familiarity with Zoroastrianism. However, because Hephthalite graves have been found, not all aspects of Zoroastrianism would have been practiced, since the funerary ritual of this religion, entailed leaving the body in the open to be devoured by sacred birds and dogs. As was the case with language religion was probably another area in which the Hephthalites constituted a multicultural society". [2]

[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia pp. 150-151

[2]: (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.


Military Level:
4
[408, 561]

[1] This is a tentative estimate as the sources are not clear as to what the actual structure of the Hepthalite military was, although some terms for ranks are preserved. The ranks below are based on Bactrian seals found at several archaeological sites.
1. King
2. Asbarobido ’Chief of cavalry’
3. Oazarko fromalaro ’Great Commander’
4. Military serving tribesman

[1]: encyclopedia iranica Vol. III, Fasc. 4, pp. 344-349


Administrative Level:
[4 to 5]
[408, 561]

Hephthalites produced coins. On that basis:
1. King
2. Advisor or government official3. Manager of a mint4. Mint worker
In general, Hephthalite ruler maintained control over his regions through lesser kings and pre-established dynasties.
India: pre-existing infrastructure of provincial government
After the Hephthalites conquered Gupta dynasty provinces in India their rulers came under Hephthalite control. [1] So they would have inherited whatever administrative structure was present in the former Gupta provinces.
Tarim Basin: vassals not provinces
"the Hephthalites interferred minimally in the affairs of the Tarim cities after subduing them, contenting themselves with the extraction of tributes." [2]
unknown: 408-550 CE; 2: 550 CE [3]
There seems to have was a great deal of autonomy in the Hepthalite kingdoms. This was the case in Chaganiyan, on the upper and middle reaches of the Surkhan Darya. There is some speculation that local administrative structures were maintained, but this does not have enough evidence for anything beyond the extraction of tribute. There is also some limited evidence of the titles of officials from gemstones. [4]
Small family landholdings
Fraternal polyandry marriage "it was the custom for women to adorn their hats with horns, one per husband." "If a man had no brothers he would often adopt another man so as to be able to marry." More recently Tibetans who practiced this form of marriage did it "to make sure that small family landholdings did not have to be divided among brothers. Instead all male offspring remained on their parents’ land and worked it together as a single landholding. This system also limits population growth significantly since each generation produces the children of only one woman instead of offspring from the wives of all brothers." However, since the Hephthalite nomads did not have family farms they may have practiced this form of marriage for keeping the herds together and population control. Chinese records don’t mention status of the presumably many unmarried Hephthalite women. [5]

[1]: (Bauer 2010, 182) Bauer, S W. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company.

[2]: (Starr 2015, 37) Starr, F S. 2015. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland. Routledge.

[3]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, p. 149

[4]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 149

[5]: (West 2009, 276-277) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.


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