Early Pandyas

levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources. Cities and hamlets have been inferred due to the presence of capital, town and village.:1. Capital : “Under the Pandyas their capital Madurai and the Pandyan port Korkai were great centres of trade and commerce.” ^[1] ::2. City (inferred) :::3. Town ::: “The Ur was a town which was various described as a big village (perur), a small village (sirur) or an old village (mudur). Cheri was the suburb of a town or village, while pakkam was a neighbouring area. Salai was the trunk road and teru the street in a town.” ^[2] ::::4. Village :::::5. Hamlet (inferred)

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 351) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

[2]: (Agnihotri 1988, 353) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

levels. Four levels mentioned in the consulted sources. Highly likely there were more specific levels such as various types of officers, but this should be checked by an expert.:1. King : “The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” ^[1] ::2. Enperaym (officials who were responsible to the king only) :: “There was another institution called Enperayam which consisted of (1) Karanattiyalavar (accountants); (2) Karumakarar (executive officials); (3) Kanakasurram (treasury officials); (4) Kadaikappalar (palace guards); (5) Nagarmandar (important elderly persons in the city); (6) Padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry); (7) Yanai Virar (Chief of the elephantry); and (8) Irulai Maravar (chiefs of the cavalry) these were categories of officials who had no collective status but only individual responsibility to the king.” ^[2] :::3. Military Commanders ::: “During the Sangam period, hereditary monarchy was the form of government. The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorized into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).” ^[1] ::::4. Army soldiers :::: “The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” ^[1]

[1]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection

[2]: (Agnihotri 1988, 352) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

levels. Four levels specifically mentioned in the consulted literature. More level might have been present such as governors.:1. King (Vendar) : “The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings were the vendar (crowned kings). These great kings had their special insignia of royalty such as the staff, drum, and umbrella. They also had specific emblems of power-the tiger, bow and fish were the emblems of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas respectively.” ^[1] ::2. Enperaym (officials who were responsible to the king only) :: “There was another institution called Enperayam which consisted of (1) Karanattiyalavar (accountants); (2) Karumakarar (executive officials); (3) Kanakasurram (treasury officials); (4) Kadaikappalar (palace guards); (5) Nagarmandar (important elderly persons in the city); (6) Padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry); (7) Yanai Virar (Chief of the elephantry); and (8) Irulai Maravar (chiefs of the cavalry) these were categories of officials who had no collective status but only individual responsibility to the king.” ^[2] :::3. Minisiters :::3. Priests :::3. Envoys :::3. Military Commanders :::3. Spies ::: “During the Sangam period, hereditary monarchy was the form of government. The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorized into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).” ^[3] ::::4. Chieftains (Velir) :::: “Apart from the vendar, there were a number of chieftains known as velir. Internecine conflict was a feature of the politics of the time. Kings and chieftains also often fought against each other by forming alliances. The lesser rulers no doubt had to pay tribute to their more powerful counterparts.” ^[1]

[1]: (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection

[2]: (Agnihotri 1988, 352) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

[3]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection

“The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” ^[1]

[1]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection

“The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” ^[1]

[1]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection

In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.

“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.

“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.

“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.” ^[1]

[1]: (Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. "Lawyers" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library

The following quote suggests that there was some legal system within the Early Pandya kingdom during the Sangam Age. “Some other officials of the Sangam Age included Mandirakkanakkar (scribes in-charge of royal correspondence and were also known as Mandira Olai), Arakkalttu Andanar (judicial advisers) Tandira Vinainar (executive officials doing odd clerical jobs). Dharma Vinainar (discharging religious duties) and Ayakkanakkar (in charge of revenue collection).” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 353) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

The following quote suggests that bartering of articles was commonplace in market-places during the Sangam Period in Tamil Nadu. “Poems refer to the exchange of goods for goods (notuttal). Kadam or kadan meaning debt is mentioned in the texts. The loan of a commodity to be paid back in the same kind and quantity was in vogue and was called kurittumaretirppai or kuriyetirppai. Avanam or angadi were the main organized points of exchange (market place). People from Kurinji had ivory, honey, wild meat, animal skins and bamboo rice for exchange, while those from mullai had dairy products, millet, horse-grain and ragi for exchange. The costal people had mainly fish and salt for exchange.” ^[1] “The walls, moat (ahali or kidangu) and the towered gates (parvgal) of the large Pandyan capital Madurai, its tall mansions and broad streets and its bazaars bright with flags of various kings, are described in the Maduraikanji.” ^[2]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 357) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

[2]: (Agnihotri 1988, 354) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

“Sangam texts refer to ulavar or toluvar as the tillers of menpulam. They knew the technique of harnessing the bullocks (erutu) at their necks with a cross-bar (nukam) to ploughshare (meli or nanjil) which was iron-tipped for furrowing buffaloes (erumai) were also used for ploughing. Tank irrigation (ayam) and minor dam (sirai) irrigation are mentioned.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 357) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

Temples. “Tirucendur, south of the Tambraparani delta, has a well known temple of Murukan, said in myths to protect the Pandyas from incursions from the sea.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 359) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

markets and irrigation systems. The following quote suggests that bartering of articles was commonplace in market-places during the Sangam Period in Tamil Nadu. “Poems refer to the exchange of goods for goods (notuttal). Kadam or kadan meaning debt is mentioned in the texts. The loan of a commodity to be paid back in the same kind and quantity was in vogue and was called kurittumaretirppai or kuriyetirppai. Avanam or angadi were the main organized points of exchange (market place). People from Kurinji had ivory, honey, wild meat, animal skins and bamboo rice for exchange, while those from mullai had dairy products, millet, horse-grain and ragi for exchange. The costal people had mainly fish and salt for exchange.” ^[1] “The walls, moat (ahali or kidangu) and the towered gates (parvgal) of the large Pandyan capital Madurai, its tall mansions and broad streets and its bazaars bright with flags of various kings, are described in the Maduraikanji.” ^[2] “Sangam texts refer to ulavar or toluvar as the tillers of menpulam. They knew the technique of harnessing the bullocks (erutu) at their necks with a cross-bar (nukam) to ploughshare (meli or nanjil) which was iron-tipped for furrowing buffaloes (erumai) were also used for ploughing. Tank irrigation (ayam) and minor dam (sirai) irrigation are mentioned.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 357) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

[2]: (Agnihotri 1988, 354) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

“The expression of Sangam in Tamil literature stands for an academy of arts and letters started and patronised by all the three crowned kings of the Tamil lands, Pandya, Cola and Cera, and especially the Pandya […] The Academy was, then, in the nature of a modern University and the heart-centre of higher learning in all Tamil India. ^[1]

[1]: (Dikshitar 1941, 152-153) Dikshitar, Ranachandra. 1941. ‘The Sangam Age’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 5. Pp 152-161. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection

“The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.” ^[1]

[1]: (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection

“Under the Pandyas their capital Madurai and the Pandyan port Korkai were great centres of trade and commerce.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 351) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

The following quote discusses trading emporia known as Pattanam during the Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu. “Pattanam were the centres of long distance trade. Certain weights of gold known as Kaame and Kalanju were used as media of exchange in the Pattanam, perhaps also in certain higher transactions. ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 357) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

The following quote discusses trading emporia known as Pattanam during the Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu. “Pattanam were the centres of long distance trade. Certain weights of gold known as Kaame and Kalanju were used as media of exchange in the Pattanam, perhaps also in certain higher transactions. ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 357) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

“But more interesting and important are the numerous Brahmi Tamil inscriptions and Brahmi script found on pot sherds of the period. They have been found in more or less the same type of script in Arikamedu, Kanchi, Karur, Uraiyur, Korkai etc. i.e., in a vast territory in Tamilnadu.” ^[1]

[1]: (Raman 1976, 55) Raman, K.V. 1976. ‘Archaeology of the Sangam Age’. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 37. Pp 50-56. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M3ZPI56I/collection

“But more interesting and important are the numerous Brahmi Tamil inscriptions and Brahmi script found on pot sherds of the period. They have been found in more or less the same type of script in Arikamedu, Kanchi, Karur, Uraiyur, Korkai etc. i.e., in a vast territory in Tamilnadu.” ^[1]

[1]: (Raman 1976, 55) Raman, K.V. 1976. ‘Archaeology of the Sangam Age’. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 37. Pp 50-56. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M3ZPI56I/collection

“Another phonetic feature of the speech of many Tamils is the fronting of the short vowel a which we represent generally as [a] in transcription and transliteration.” ^[1]

[1]: (Schiffman 1999, 17) Schiffman, Harold F. 1999. A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GBFQFXFD/collection

Shaivist Hindu sacred texts. “The Sangam religion was originally ancient Shaivism, which remained predominant, especially the cults of Shiva and Murugan (or Skanda), Shiva’s son.” ^[1]

[1]: (Danielou, 2003) Danielou, Alain. 2003. A Brief History of India. New York: Simon and Schuster. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/WFMTGQJ8/collection

Hindu religious literature. “The Vedic religion had struck root in the south, which is proved by references to the costly sacrifices performed by the monarchs of the age. Brahmins, devoted to their studies and religious duties, held a high position in society.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 360) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

The following quote refers to the Sangam literary work of Tolkappiyam. “The linguistic and philological evidence and the evidence of the picture of social life conveyed by the treaties indulging in several themes of primitive love and marriage customs, as also the picture of the division of land according to the natural regions Kurinimullai, neydal and marudum with indications of different cultures in every such region, these point to the fact that the Tolkappiyam proceeds in point of time to the extant Sangam works, especially Purananuru and Ahananuru.” ^[1]

[1]: (Dikshitar 1941, 155-15) Dikshitar, Ranachandra. 1941. ‘The Sangam Age’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 5. Pp 152-161. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection

“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” ^[1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library

The following quote discusses weight measurements of gold coins during the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu. “Kanam was a measure of gold (coin?), very small in size. Pons referred to perhaps the same measure as kanam.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 355) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

The following quote discusses weight measurements of gold coins during the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu suggesting that indigenous coins were likely present. “Kanam was a measure of gold (coin?), very small in size. Pons referred to perhaps the same measure as kanam.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 355) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

“In regions included in the ancient Chera, Pandya, and Chola Kingdoms have been found large numbers of Roman coins struck chiefly by emperors down to Nero […]” ^[1]

[1]: (Warmington 1928, 63) Warmington, E.H. 1928. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/SJB2W6BB/collection

The following quote discusses weight measurements during the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu. “Kanam was a measure of gold (coin?), very small in size. Pons referred to perhaps the same measure as kanam.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 355) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection

“Moreover, in ancient India itself the dominant calendar is known, again through vedic sources, to have been lunar, whereas the 360- day savana year seems only to have functioned in certain contexts as a simplified scheme.” ^[1]

[1]: (Stern 2012, 189) Stern, Sacha. 2012. Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States, and Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N6QDRSRQ/library

The following quote discusses length measurements during the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu. “Popular unit of distance was a kuppidu.” ^[1]

[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 355) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection