Home Region:  Pontic-Caspian (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Golden Horde

1240 CE 1440 CE

D G SC CC PT EQ 2020  ru_golden_horde

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Preceding Entity: Add one more here.
1206 CE 1270 CE Mongol Empire (mn_mongol_emp)    [secession]

Succeeding Entity:
No Polity found. Add one here.


The Golden Horde – or Ulug Ulus (‘Great State’) – was originally a northwest sector of the Mongol Empire, which became one of four independent khanates after the fragmentation of the empire in 1259, led by the son of Ghengis Khan, Jochi.
Our Golden Horde polity begins in 1240 when Khan Batu, the grandson of Ghengis Khan, sacked and burned the city of Kiev, conquering and subjugating the region of the Russian steppe and its principalities.
The merging of the nomadic, shamanist, mongol-turkic Gold Horde, with the devoutly Christian and settled people of the Russian steppes, brought about many changes for both sides.
From the fourteenth century the Horde officially converted to Islam under the rule of Öz Beg (Uzbek) Khan
At its greatest extent, around 1330, the Golden Horde territory ran from the Carpathian Mountains to the steppes of Siberia, while the south bordered the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains and the Iranian territory of the Il-Khans.
[1] [2]

[1]: “Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R

[2]: Atwood 2004: vii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.

General Variables
Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Hierarchical Complexity
Professions
Bureaucracy Characteristics
Law
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
Transport Infrastructure
Special-purpose Sites
Information / Writing System
Information / Kinds of Written Documents
Information / Money
Information / Postal System
Information / Measurement System
Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)
Fortifications
Military use of Metals
Projectiles
Handheld weapons
Animals used in warfare
Armor
Naval technology
Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)
Luxury Goods
Religion Variables Coding in Progress.
Human Sacrifice Coding in Progress.
Crisis Consequences Coding in Progress.
Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range Golden Horde (ru_golden_horde) was in:
Home NGA: None

General Variables
Identity and Location
Utm Zone:
39 N
[1240, 1440]

Original Name:
Golden Horde
[1240, 1440]

Capital:
Sarai Batu (also Sarai or Saray or Old Sarai)
[1240, 1440]

The first Golden Horde capital was established by Batu Khan on the lower banks of the Volga River. Under the reign of Berke Khan, the capital was moved upstream and renamed. In the fourteenth century the capital of Sarai was described as a typical Muslim city, having running water, mosques, meddress’ (higher learning), palaces, merchants’ quarters and inns for travellers. [1] [2]

[1]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[2]: Schamiloglu 2018: 23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX

Capital:
Sarai Berke (also New Sarai or New Saray)
[1240, 1440]

The first Golden Horde capital was established by Batu Khan on the lower banks of the Volga River. Under the reign of Berke Khan, the capital was moved upstream and renamed. In the fourteenth century the capital of Sarai was described as a typical Muslim city, having running water, mosques, meddress’ (higher learning), palaces, merchants’ quarters and inns for travellers. [1] [2]

[1]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[2]: Schamiloglu 2018: 23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX


Alternative Name:
Ulug Ulus
[1240, 1440]

It was not until the sixteenth-century that the name Golden Horde was given to this independent entity of the Mongols. Prior to this they were referred to as Dasht-I Qifchaq¸ ‘Qipchaq Steppe’, or Ulus (realm) of Jochi, the ancestor of the Golden Horde khans. . [1]

[1]: Atwood 2004: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.

Alternative Name:
Kipchap Khanate
[1240, 1440]

It was not until the sixteenth-century that the name Golden Horde was given to this independent entity of the Mongols. Prior to this they were referred to as Dasht-I Qifchaq¸ ‘Qipchaq Steppe’, or Ulus (realm) of Jochi, the ancestor of the Golden Horde khans. . [1]

[1]: Atwood 2004: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.

Alternative Name:
Ulus of Jochi
[1240, 1440]

It was not until the sixteenth-century that the name Golden Horde was given to this independent entity of the Mongols. Prior to this they were referred to as Dasht-I Qifchaq¸ ‘Qipchaq Steppe’, or Ulus (realm) of Jochi, the ancestor of the Golden Horde khans. . [1]

[1]: Atwood 2004: 201. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.


Temporal Bounds
Peak Years:
[1312 CE ➜ 1341 CE]
 

Öz Beg (Uzbek) Khan is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Golden Horde. During his reign the polity reached the height of its power and Islam became the official state religion. The khan’s court was full of scholars, theologians, mathematicians and astronomers. During the reign of his son and successor, Jani Beg Khan, the Black Death hit the Horde. Jani Beg was later assassinated in 1357. As the Golden Horde would not return to its height of power again, the end of Öz Beg’s reign is considered to mark the beginning of the decline and gradual disintegration of the Golden Horde. [1] [2] [3]

[1]: “Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R

[2]: Halperin 1987: 27. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[3]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 460. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Duration:
[1240 CE ➜ 1440 CE]
 

Political and Cultural Relations
Suprapolity Relations:
ru_golden_horde alliance with uz_timurid_emp
1370 CE 1395 CE

Timur formed a long-term military alliance with Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde to secure his northern frontier, aiding Tokhtamysh’s rise to power. The alliance collapsed after Tokhtamysh’s rebellions (1385–1395). [Morgan 1991, pp. 179-181]

Suprapolity Relations:
ru_golden_horde nominal allegiance to cn_yuan_dyn
[1240, 1440]

While Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) claimed the title of Great Khan, other major Mongol ulus (successor states) recognized this claim largely in name but governed themselves autonomously. Over time, the Golden Horde operated as de facto independent state. They often acknowledged Yuan precedence formally yet conducted their own foreign policies and minting. [Morgan 1991, pp. 136-157]


Preceding Entity:
1206 CE 1270 CE Mongol Empire (mn_mongol_emp)    [secession]  
 

Language
Religion
Religious Tradition:
Shamanism
[1240, 1440]
Religious Tradition:
Islam
[1240, 1440]


Social Complexity Variables
Social Scale
Population of the Largest Settlement:
75,000 people
[1240, 1440]

Inhabitants.Sarai Berke on the Volga River (previously named Sarai Batu and located downstream) was the capital of the Golden Horde. At its peak it had around inhabitants. [1]

[1]: “Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R


Polity Territory:
6,000,000 km2
1310 CE

in squared kilometers.The peak date of the Golden Horde’s territorial expanse was in 1310 when they held six million square kilometres of territory. [1]

[1]: Turchin, Adams and Hall 2006: 222. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8J2YS3HC


Polity Population:
[400,000 to 600,000] people
[1240, 1440]

People.“The size of the Horde’s population can be approximately calculated by a widely used method: the numerical strength of the army, known from the sources, is multiplied by 4 or 5. It is believed that upon full military mobilisation, some 3/4 or 4/5 of the total population of the nomads—women, children, feeble old men and horseless poor—stayed at home.” [1] Therefore the estimated population of the Golden Horde is around 400,000 – 600,000 inhabitants by the end of this period. [2]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 829. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8

[2]: Trepavlov 2016: 427. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PUGWXUCR


Largest Communication Distance:
300
[1240, 1440]

in kilometers.The distance between the city of Bulgar and the farthest east sites at the Alatyr and Issa rivers is 300km; more than one week of land travel. [1]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 311. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Hierarchical Complexity
Settlement Hierarchy:
6
[1240, 1440]

levels. Types of settlements varied between regions as the nomadic Horde conquered and settled in regions which had towns and villages. [1] [2] [3] [4] : 1. Capital city (Sarai) :: 2. Major cities (Astrakhan, Ükek, Bulğar) ::: 3. Towns :::: 4. Villages ::::: 5. Hamlets :::::: 6. Nomadic camps

[1]: Halperin 1987: 35, 36, 77, 84. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[2]: Atwood 2004: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.

[3]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8

[4]: Schamiloglu 2018: 19. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX


Religious Level:
1
[1240, 1440]

levels.With the official conversion to Islam in the fourteenth century came the change of the religious structure in the Golden Horde. [1] There is no official structure or hierarchy in the religion of Islam. Though there are scholars and preachers (imams).

[1]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.


Military Level:
6
[1240, 1440]

levels.“Characteristic of the Jochid Ulus army was the designation of a military service class chosen primarily from among the Horde’s social elite. The Jochids formed its upper crust, followed by ulus begs and darugh begs, then emirs in command of thousands, hundreds, and dozens, to whom the title beg also applied.. Commanders from the Jochi clan were known as oghlans on the army’s right and Left wings… Therefore, most scholars agree that the organizational structure of the military consisted of a rigid hierarchy based on the decimal system, in which tens were the smallest units and a tumen of ten thousand warriors—the largest unit.” [1] : 1. Khan :: 2. ulus begs and darugh begs ::: 3. Emirs :::: 4. Military Governor (Voevoda) ::::: 5. Commander (Noyan) :::::: 6. Soldiers and horsemen.

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 259-260. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Administrative Level:
[4 to 5]
[1240, 1440]

levels. [1] [2] Prior to Islamic conversion : 1. Khan (head of state) :: 2. Family Council (quriltai) :: 2.1. Commander in chief / Deputy to the Khan (beglerbegi) :: 2.2. Vizier ::: 3. Ulus khans (a minor khan within each state, ulus, of the wider empire) :::: 4. Ulus Emirs ::::: 5. Lesser administrative posts. After Islamic conversion With the official conversion to Islam in the fourteenth century came the adoption of the Persian diwan system of governance. [3] _Regions with direct administration_ : 1. Khan :: 2. Central Council ::: 3. Vizier (head of the treasury) :::4. Baskaki (local official, tax collector, supervisor, military commander) (changed to darugi in the fourteenth century) ::::: 5. Lesser administrative posts. _Regions with local administration_ The Golden Horde chose not to have direct administration in Russian or Armenia-Georgia due to the expense, and so allowed local rulers, such as princes, to administer the region. Although they initially had resident Mongol officials (baskaki) in Russia, this was later changed so that envoys (posoly) relayed direct orders from the Khan to the local Russian princes. [4] : 1. Khan :: 2. Posoly (official envoys, important aristocrats) ::: 3. Local nobility (e.g. a foreign prince) :::: 4. Lesser administrative posts.

[1]: Atwood 2004: 205. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.

[2]: Halperin 1987: 26, 30-39. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[3]: Halperin 1987: 26, 36-39. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.

[4]: Halperin 1987: 30-31, 34. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.


Professions
Professional Soldier:
Unknown
[1240, 1440]

All able-bodied males in the Golden Horde were considered warriors but not necessarily professionals. The sources have not confirmed this. [1]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 260. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Professional Priesthood:
Absent
[1240, 1440]

Professional Military Officer:
Unknown
[1240, 1440]

The elite classes made up the officer ranks of the army but they were not necessarily professionals. The sources have not confirmed this. [1]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 259-260. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Source Of Support:
unknown
[1240, 1440]

Probably a salary but this is not confirmed in the sources.


Bureaucracy Characteristics
Specialized Government Building:
Present
[1240, 1440]

Courts, archives, offices etc. [1] [2]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 177, 216. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8

[2]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.


Merit Promotion:
Unknown
[1240, 1440]

Full Time Bureaucrat:
Present
[1240, 1440]

The Golden Horde had a permanent bureaucratic centre in the capital of Sarai. [1]

[1]: Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.


Examination System:
Present
[1240, 1440]

It appears that bureaucrats needed to be “qualified” and undertook many roles such as taxation, administration. [1]

[1]: Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 65, 919. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8


Law
Professional Lawyer:
Present